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PROCEEDINGS
ROYAL IRISH ACADEMY.
VOLUME VI,
DUBLIN:
PUBLISHED AT THE ACADEMY HOUSE, 19, DAW80N-8TEEET,
SOLD ALSO
Bt HODGES, FIGGIS, & CO. (Ltd.), GRAPTON-ST. ; Bt WILUAMS & NOKGATE, LoHDOH : 14, Hbnbibtta-stbbbt, Coyxnt Gardbn. Eotstbubab: 20, South Fbbdxbiok-bt. Oxpobd: 7 Bboad-bt.
1900-1902.
,->,>
IV PONMNBY A
The AcADEMir desire it to be understood that they are not onswerable for any opiniony representation of facts^ or train qf reasoning that may appear in any of the following Papers. The Authors of the several Papers are alone responsible for their contents.
U^crc 18 08. ^ a
<^/:
LIST OF THE CONTRIBUTORS.
WITH £EFER£NC£ TO THE SBVEBAL AETICLE8 CONTEIBUTED
BY BACH.
BieezB, Fbahcis Joseph. page
On the Deztera Dei Bculptuied on the High CrosBes of
Ireland, 79
BBowBZy Chablbb B., H.I).
The Ethnography of Cama and HweeniBh in the Parish
of Moyross, Connemara. (Plates XXI.-XXY.), . 503
BuicE, Bey. Gajbbikl B., LL.D.
Beport on the Ogams recently discovered near Connor^
Co. Antrim, 265
Clcme, Bey. Maxwell H., H.A.
Hipparchus and the Precession of the Equinoxes, . 450
Bemarks on a Cosmographical Tractate in the Irish
Langoage in the Library of the Boyal Irish Academy, 457
Dix, £. B. McCLnrrocx.
The Earliest Periodical Journals published in Dublin.
(Plates VI. and Vn.), 33
Dixov, Hekbt H. Sc.D.
On the first Mitosis of the Spore Mother-cells of Lilium.
(Plates I. and II.), 1
FALKianEB, Caesab Lutoh, M.A.
The Phoenix Park : its origin and early History, with
some notices of its Boyal and Yiceregal Besidences, 465
HALBSRTy J. "S,
See JoHKsoH, Bey. W. F.
OCTOMEH.3
PROCEEDINGS
B^
OF THB
[^-,^\;>
ROYAL IRISH ACADEMY,
THIRD SERIES.
YOIilJlllE VI.— Mo. 1.
DUBLIN;
PUBUSHED AT THE ACADEMY HOUSE, 19, DAWSON STREET.
SOLD ALSO
Bt HODGES, FIGGIS, & CO. (Ltd.), GRAPTON-ST.;
By WILLIAMS & NORGATE,
Lonimn: 14, HsmuETTA-sTaKET, CoTENT Gabdbm.
£i>nf BiTEOH : 20, South Fkbdb&ick-st. Oxford : 7, Broad-st.
1900.
P^^'y^ TP^M» Rhi17%Vtft9
INOEX SLIP-
Bfx^if , Hkxcat H.--On the flrst mitons of the fpore-nrottier-oelli of lilium. Roy. Insh AcmI. Proe.» S. 3, voL 6, 1900, pp. 1-12.
liUum, mitaeifl of tpora-mother-eells of. Dixon, Heni y H.
Roy.Iriflh Acad. Proc., S. 8, toI. 6» 1900, pp. 1-12.
Hitoaas of spcwe-raother-cellB of lilium. Dixon, Henij H.
Roy. Irish Acad. Proc., S. 3, yol. 6, 1900, pp. 1-12.
Jolt, Cbahlxs J.— On the place of the Atudfknwtfilihri in the general aaaociattTe algebn of the Quaternion type.
Roy. Irish Acad. Proc., S. 3, vol. 6, 1900, pp. 13-18.
Am9d4kmmtifthhT9 of Graatmann, its place in geneial assocaative algehn of Quateraton type. Joly, Charles J.
Roy. Irish Acad. Proc., 8. 3, toL 6, 1900, pp. 13-18.
AaaociatiTe algrhxa of the Qoatemion type, relation of Orassn.ann's Autdeh^ mmg9Uhr9 to. Joly, Charles J.
Roy. Itrah Acad. Proc., 8. 3, vol. 6, 1900, pp. 13-18.
Quaternions and Aniikkntmftl^re. Joly, ChaHesj;
Roy. Irish Acad. Proc., 8. 8, vol 6, 1900, pp. 13-18.
ll.lJi Zld/i
iitif I i I. Mo bII'v- i-»HiorH-'>r< •«|»J **dt to ^i^o J nn I'll. 't «»|f .«'•- IT /n^iH '•^fi
:i- f 'V\ .0 n I ,o .f.v r. ^ ,.
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. •/ ^,'1, '. /'IJ ' •(."•-r l»n >/!'^y iii •• < t.j >-»[ .•■•• .!:-'•'. »t» Ni «''»v vvi^vtt»wA l\.^l»♦l•
^. . k: n| ,"•'»' I .•'
,<. '' . umM .1.1 ->/ i.-il 'o I
( 2 )
O'&uuT, JtMtPH P.—Ob tlie SpUiorit»«ad Mm SeUsUor KiUiiiAy Pork, Co. Bojr. ItkkAMd. Ptoc, 8. 8, vd. 6, 1M0» pp. 19-26.
MeUnKM-phie rock^/epidiorite and mioa achisU) of KiUiney Park, Co. Dublin. 0*BeiUy, Jotepk P.
Roy. Irish Acad. Proc., 8. 8, vol. 6, 1900, pp. 19-26.
Dublin* Countv of, •pidioKJIe and mtM-aohitta at KiUindy* . O'Btfilly, Joaeph P.
Boy. Iriah Acad. Proc., 8. 8, toI. 6, 1900, pp. 19-26.
KncAMAN, G. H.— The Beaufort's Dyke, off the coast of the Mull of Galloway. Boy. Irish Acad. Proc., 8. 3, vol. 6, 19U0» pp. 20-82.
Iri«h Channi'l, conformation of floor of. Kinahan, G. H.
Boy. Irish Acad. Proc., 8. 3, vol. 6, 1900, pp. 26-32
IHk, E. B. M'Cumtock.— The earliest periodical journals published in Dublin.
Boy. Irish Acad. Proc., 8. 3, vol 6, 1900, pp. 83-36.
Journals, eariy Dublin periodical. dU S. B. If 'CUntook.
Boy. Irish Acad. Proc., 8. 3, vol. 6, 1900, pp. 33-36.
Dablin, earliest periodical jouniais in. Diz, E. B. M*Clintoek.
Boy. Irish Acad. Proc., S. 3, toI. 6, 1900, pp. 33-35.
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O'Bbillt, Josepe P.---Tlie Milesum Colonuntion cofuidered in relution to B07. Irish AMd. Pioe., 8. 8, toL •, 1900, n>. 36 78.
Milesian edonixalioB in relation to {gold-imning. 0*ReiUy, Joseph P.
Boy. Irish Acsd. Proe., S. S, yoL 6, 1900, pp. 36-78.
Gold, mining of by Mitesiati coloniats. O'Rrilly, Joseph P.
Roy. Irish Acad. Proc., S. 3, vol. 6, 1900, pp. 36-78.
Bioosn, Faaxcis J.— The Dextera JUi sculptuied on the High Crosses of Irelattd.
Boy. Irish Acad. Proc., 8. 3, vol. 6, 1900, pp. 79-84.
IkxUrm IM 00 crosies in Ireland. Bigger, Francis J.
Bof. Irish. Acad. Proo<, S. 3» toI. 6, 1900, pp. 79-84.
Crosaea, liigh, in Ireland, sculptures on. Bigger, Frsnois J.
Bdy. Irish Acad. Prao,, 8. 8, vol. 6, 1900, pp. 79-84.
Wsantorr, Thomas J. — Dolmens at Bailyerodm. near Feakle, County Clare. Boy. Irish Acad. Proc., S. 3, toI. 6, 1900, pp. 85-92.
Dohnena in County Clare, Ireknd. Westropp, Thomas J.
Boy. Irish Acad. Proc., 8. 3, r<A. 6, 1900, pp. 85-92.
Clare, County of, Ireland, dolmens in. "Westropp, Thomas J.
Boy. Irish Acad. Proc., S. 3, vol. 6, 1900, pp. 85-92.
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r 0 (z) tit RoBimTt, WiLUAM Rau-h.^Qh the i«<lUf^|pii of the intognl 1 — - — ._::^
to a number of other integrali of the form I 7=*
^ J(»-«)\//W
when f (f ) are rational and integral functions of i and /(s)» a polynomial or the degfee of 2«i. . I Boy. JdaOe^. Pii». ,8.S,^. t, IMO, pp. 98-99.
Inte^ I . — .-, rednction of.
Boherte, William Batph.
Boy. Iriah Acad. Proo., 8. 3, vol. 6, 1900, pp. 98-99.
WaanoTF, Tsoiua 7.— The chtrch^ of O^nnty CUre, asd the origin of the ecoleeiastical diviaiona in that county.
Boy. Irish Acad. Fioe., S. 8, toI. 6, 1900, pp. 10<^180.
Clare, CoimtT of, Irehaidy eh«Biehei aiid etfeMaM&oal diyiriont in. Westropp, lliomaa J.
M0f. likb AetA FM., S. 8, toI. 6, 1900, pp. 100-180.
Ireland, arduteetme ol, chniehea ai Cootily date. WestFopp, ThomacJ.
Roy. Iviah Acad. Proc., S. 3, vol. 6, 1900, pp. 100<180.
\ . ♦«
I ./vi'i Mil' t,. .'^ ii*l''i T.»(i*'> t«» •i'Mi":,(n !» ol
1./' • !W. i to -n«'t)>ni'* ItrryMtnr fpTi, h ^t"*ni *"i. •" >i» iVi'A '*
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JAN 7 tOOr] LSoci^6%*^0 PROCEEDINGS
OF
THE ROYAL IRISH ACADEMY.
PAPERS READ BEFORE THE ACADEMY.
ON THE FIRST MITOSIS OF THE SPORE-MOTHER-CELLS OF LILIUM. By HENRY H. DIXON, Sc.D., Assistant ta ttie Professor of Botany, Dublin Uniyersity.
[Plates I. and II.]
(COMIIUNICATED BY DH. B. P. WBIOHT.) [Read Decbmbbk 11, 1899.]
Wmni recent years so much has been written on the nuclear divisions taking place in the spore-mother-cells of the higher plants, and so apparently divergent are the views, both as regards the general process and the details of its history, that it might at first appear {rom a survey of the literature that little had been definitely ascer- tained. By a closer study of the recent memoirs on the subject such an opinion will be dispelled. From these it will appear that there are at least several stages in the process which are admitted, and which Have been constantly observed by the various investigators who have made this subject their study. Wide differences of opinion, doubtless^ exist ; but these are principally with regard to the processes by which these well-established stages are derived from one another. Such vaiiance of opinion must be expected, seeing that the events cannot be continuously observed from start to finish, and that such compli- cated processes carried out on so minute a scale can often be only indirectly inferred from an interrupted sequence of arrested stages.
B.I.A. FSOC., SBE. UI., VOL. VI. B
2 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
The stages of the process of mitosis in the spore-mother-cells, acknowledged by all observers, may be briefly summarized as follows : —
(1.) The "dolichonema " stage, fig. 1.— The large nucleus of the spore-mother-cells is occupied by an enormously long and attenuate thread, consisting of a single series of chromatin granules (the chro- momeres) imbedded in the linin matrix. This thread presents few or no anastomoses.
(2.) In the next stage (fig. 2) the nucleus is in what I would suggest to call the '' strepsinema " condition. The chromatin appears in much the same condition as in the preceding stage, except that in many places it may be seen that two portions of the thread are more or less loosely twisted together. The later this stage is observed, the thicker the chromatin thread appears, and the greater the amount of the thread so twisted.
(3.) The thick twisted chromatin thread appears broken into a number of chromosomes, which have the form of twisted loops or two short threads twisted together, with four free ends, or of rings (figs. 3 and 4). The number of these chromosomes is half that found in the nuclei of vegetative cells. In the later periods of this stage the chromosomes are thicker than at the beginning, and the separate chromomeres in the threads are no longer visible.
During these first three stages the nuclear membrane remains intact, and one or more nucleoli of large but gradually waning dimen- sions are present in the nuclear fluid.
(4.) Nuclear plate (figs. 5 and 6). — The thickened chromosomes, composed of two portions twisted together, lie radially disposed in the equatorial plane of the nucleus, and attached by their internal extremities to the fibres of the achromatic spindle. The nuclear membrane and large nucleoli have disappeared.
(5.) Metaphase (fig. 7). — Two thin V-shaped daughter chromo- somes occupy the place of each of the thick twisted chromosomes in the equatorial plane. They are so disposed that the apices of the Vs point towards the poles of nucleus, while the two free ends of one are in contact with the ends of its fellow in the equatorial plane.
(6.) Anaphase (fig, 8). — The daughter chromosomes lie round the poles ; they are still V-shaped, but the limbs of each V have become
DixoK — lirst Mitosis of Spore-mother-ceUs of Lilium. 3
more or less parallel, and the chromomeres in them again become Tisible.
With these well ascertained stages before us it will be more easy todiacius the connecting processes, entering the debateable ground from these firmly established facts.
How the resting nucleus of the mother-cell of spores passes into the dolichonema condition does not appear to have been very precisely studied. It appears to be generally accepted that the irregular anas- tomoses of the nuclear net- work disappear, and the chromatin granules arrange themselves along the lengthening thread ^in series, while, ooncomitantly, the nucleus greatly increases in size. ^
The stage described as *' synapsis " intervenes between stages 1 and 2, e.g. between the dolichonema and strepsinema stages. Some anthoTs* believe that the balliag together of the chromatin thread obserred in this stage is artefact, while Miss Sargant^ has observed it in the living cells of Lilium. Synaptic nuclei are often found in very carefully fixed material (both by Flemming's solution and alchohol) and in close proximity to nuclei in the dolichonema stage.
Apart from the question of the natural occurrence of synapsis a difference of opinion exists as to how the strepsinema stage arises, and is to be derived from the dolichonema stage.
The great majority of observers describe a longitudinal division of the chromatin thread during the end of the dolichonema stage. Accord- ing to these writers the chromomeres in the thread divide first, and then the linin carrying them separates into two parallel filaments ; these filaments then twist round each other, and diverging at places give rise to the strepsinema condition.
A careful study of the process, however, in the pollen-mother-cells and embryo-sac of Lilium longijkrun led me^ to regard the strepsinema condition as more probably arising from the looping on each other and approzimatioiL of two portions of the dolichonematous thread. As the actual transition from one stage to the other cannot be observed, We can only indirectly infer the nature of the process from the appear- ances of tiie successive stages presented in fixed specimens. The
1 Gmgnaid : '< Le DeTeloppement du Pollen," Arch. d'Anat. Micr., mars. 1899. 'Gmgnazd, he, eit.^ Schaffner: ** The Diviaion of the Macrospore Nucleus/' Bot. Gazette, 1897.
'Amu of Bot., Sept, 1896.
* Dixon : *' On the Chromosomes otZihtm longi/lorum,''* Fioc. Boy. Iiish Acad., 1896.
4 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
appearances wbicli led me to adopt this view of the process are hriefly, the following : —
(1.) The fa^quent loops on the douhle twisted thread (figs. 2 and 10) conld scarcely he fonnd if the two twisted portions arose by the longitudinal fission of a single thread. The assumption of the fission origin would inTolye the assumption of a premature transverse fission also accompanied by the fusion of some of the adjacent ends of the partial threads. Such a transverse fission in this stage has not so far been recorded.
(2.) The twisted portions of the thread are not in close proximity to one another throughout the whole course of the double thread, but wide divergences are of frequent occurrence, forming secondary loops (figs. 2 and 9). If the adjacent portions arose by longitudind fission the divergences would necessitate a longitudinal displacement of the portions past each other throughout the thread. Such a sliding of the viscid portions of the chromatin thread past each other seems highly improbable. Divergences of this nature, involving more or less longitudinal displacement (if longitudinal fission is assumed), are also figured by Miss Sargant^ and Schaffner.'
(3.) The thread of nuclei, which are in a transitional stage between the dolichonema and the strepsinema condition, in places appears double and twisted and in places single. Where it is double, the diameter of each of the portions is apparently equal to the diameter of the single thread. If the two portions of the double thread were really derived by the fission of the single thread, it is evident that the single portion should be nearly double as thick as each of the two twisted portions. The actual proportion of the single to the double thread is shown in fig. 2, and also by Schaflher. '
(4.) If the twisted portions of the strepsinematous thread had arisen by fission, the chromomeres of the adjacent portions should correspond, since the opposite chromomeres of these threads have arisen, by hypothesis, from single chromomeres of the original thread. Frequently, however, this is not the case, as observation will show (fig. 9), and as, indeed, the careful drawings of Schaffner* and Gregoire' demonstrate. The non-correspondence of the chromomeres in the twisted portions is what would be expected if these portions
^ Ann. of Botany, Sept., 1896, and June, 1897. • Bot. Gaz., June, 1897, fig. 10.
'Schafl&ier, Bot. Gaz., June, 1897 : fig. 10a.
* Schaffner, he. cit., figs. U and 8c. « La Cellule, t. xvi., 2* fasc, fig. 2.
Dixon — First Mitosis of Spore^mother-cells of Lilium. 6
were brought together from dijSerent regionB of the dolichnematous thread.
(5.) Immediately after the nucleus enters on the strepsinematous stage, the coils of its thread appear less intricate; if the twisted portions were formed by the longitudinal fission of the dolichnematous thread no such diminution of complexity, but rather the reTerse, should appear, while the approximation of distant parts of the thread and their coiling round one another would leaye the nuclear cavity less encumbered, and bring about the less intricate appearance. A eompariaon of fig. 1 with fig. 2, and also of SchaSner's fig. 10 with fig. 8, ^ will exemplify this point.
(6.) Finally, intermediate stages between the dolichonema and the strepsinema stages often present themselyes which appear to connect these two stages without the intervention of any longitudinal fission (fig. 10). In these stages the approximating portions are still more distant from one another than they are in the strepsinema condition, but still an indication of the looping and twisting of the thread can be made out.
These considerations still incline me to the belief that the strep- sinema condition is brought about by the twisting of the originally simple thread upon itself. But I believe it is quite possible, and even probable, that each of the two twisted portions undergoes a longitu- dinal fission while still in the strepsinema stage or immediately after the differentatdon of the chromosomes. This fission has been figured by Schaffner,' Guignard' and Gregoire.* The last two authors, how- ever, regard this as the second longitudinal fission, while the first agrees with the point of view urged by me, regarding it as the only longitudinal fission. SchafEner, however, curiously enough also believes that the strepsinema condition arises by this fission. I have myself frequently observed appearances, both while the thread was intact and immediately after it had broken into separate chromosomes, which might be interpreted in this manner. But considering that such appearances might be produced by interference phenomena' round the sides of such minute bodies as the chromomeres, one cannot be positive that they have an objective reality in the longitudinal cleavage of the chromomeres.
^X«c. M/. * Loe, eit., fig 11^.
^Gmgnard; Le dev. du pollen dans le Najat nu^. Arch d'anat micr. 20
n. 1899. ^Loe.HL,&^. 10.
*Tbe Microflcope. Naegeli and Sohwendener. £ng. Trans, p. 238.
6 Proeeeding% of the Sayal Irish Academy*
The strepsinema condition haying; arisen as we have seen from the twisting together of the dolichonematous thread, the nucleus enters on the next stage in which the double thread is broken into a number o^ chromosomes, each composed of two portions twisted and looped together, as is shown in figs. 3 and 4. The chromosomes are of yery different lengths; in some the component chromatin threads take two or more complete turns round one another, in others a quarter revolution is all that each short thread takes round its neighbour (fig. 4). Towards the end of this stage the chromo- somes are short and bulky, and the direction of the twist of the component parts is easily studied. It is remarkable that in the same nucleus the twist is not always in the same direction, but we may find a chromosome with a right-handed twist lying side by side one with a left-handed twist. While the chromosomes are becoming shorter changes are noticeable in them ; the chromomeres lose their individu- ality, and all merge in the densely staining chromosome, the twisting in each chromosome is reduced to one complete turn or less, and all signs of the longitudinal split, real or apparent, in the components portions disappear. Little or no diminution in distinctness of the two twisted portions is observed.
With regard to the nuclear plate stage, some discussion^ has been raised as to whether the two portions of the chromosomes lie in the equatorial or in meridional planes; as a matter of fact careful observa- tion shows that in the same nuclear plate the peripheral ends of different chromosomes lie indifferently in either of these planes or in planes inclined to them. The fact that the portions are twisted on each other makes it impossible to assert that the portions themselves lie in any one plane.
I formerly believed that of the looped chromosomes the closed end was regularly directed towards the axis of the cell and the free ends directed towards the periphery.' Having found several undoubted instances of the looped end being directed outwards, I am compelled to consider that it is a matter of accident in which direction in the nuclear plate the chromosomes lie. The same nuclear plate actually sometimes shows chromosomes in the two positions (fig. 5).
The manner of attachment of the chromosomes to the fibres of the achromatic spindle, and the method of formation of the two V-shaped daughter chromosones from the thick twisted chromosomes of the equatorial plate are matters of dispute. Several authors believe that
^ Gregoire, loe, eit. * Dixon, lo^, Ht. ; Schaffner, toe, eit.
Dixon — First Mitosis of Spore-mother'CeUs of Lilium. 7
the two portions of the twisted chromosomes separate, and each by itself forms a single V-shaped chromosome for the new nucleus. Two different methods for this formation hare been urged. Farmer* believed that each twisted chromosome bends on itself about the middle, and at the point of bending becomes attached to the fibres of the spindle. The fibres from one pole form connections with one of the portions, those from the other pole with the other portion of th& chromosome. In this way each V-shaped daughter chromosome really represents one complete and intact portion of the twisted chromosome bent upon itself. In this yiew Farmer is followed by Kiss Sargant^ and Mottier.' Undoubtedly such a bending, as Farmer describes, may occasionally be seen, but I venture to think that it ia far from being the general rule. As Oregoire^ suggests, it seems to have become regarded as the normal form in order to explain the general occurrence of V-shaped daughter chromosomes arising from the division of the equatorial plate ; but as Gregoire also has pointed out, these bent chromosomes in reality give rise to 4 V-shaped daughter chromosomes, while the much more general unbent form gives rise to the normal two V-shaped chromosomes.
Although Gregoire in this respect differs from Farmer, he agrees with the latter in regarding the division which takes place in the equatorial plate as separating the two portions of the twisted chromo- somes and distributing them to the daughter nuclei. He believes that as they separate from one another they imdergo a longitudinal fission, and as they part from the equator the ends of these cleavage segments nearest the equator diverge, and so the V-shaped chromosomes are formed.
This explanation, however, does not, I think, take into account the manner in which the V-shaped daughter chromosomes actually part asunder from one another in the equatorial plate. If Gregoire' s scheme were accurate, it would seem that at the moment of separation the two flaughter chromosomes would often be laterally displaced one over the otilier so as not to lie on the same meridian of the cell ; both limbs of the upper V should lie to the left of those of the under, or vice vena. This would appear to be the natural result from the formation of the two limbs of each V-shaped daughter chromosome from one twisted portion of the chromosome of the equatorial plate. Gregoire" himself
^ Fmner and Moore. Aoat. Anseiger. Aug. 1896.
sMlaa Sargant, Ann. of Bot Sept.» 1896. ' Mottier Jahrb. f. irin. Bot 1897.
^Giegoire, Ue. eit. ' Zoe, eU,, figs 17 and 20.
8 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
figures the daughter chromosomes (with one exception to be referred to later on) Tertically over one another. So far as my own experience goes, the daughter chromosomes in the great majority of cases are in reality laterally displaced one over the other to the extent shown in figs. 7 and 18. This lateral displacement is, howeyer, much smaller than required by Gregoire's scheme, and is in fact just the thickness of one limb of the V-shaped chromosomes ; so that the ends of one V lie beside those of the sister chromosome just before leaving the equatorial plate. This displacement of the daughter chromosomes with regard to one another may be seen in the figures of several investigators, e.g. in those of Miss. Sai^ant,^ Strasburger and Mottier,' and indistinctly in one by Gregoire, himself the figure before alluded to.'
In all these figures the ends of the daughter chromosomes lying in the equatorial plane overlap, and are interlaced and present an appear- ance, which, I believe, could only be produced by the formation of each of the V-shaped daughter chromosomes from half of both portions of the original twisted chromosomes of the equatorial plate, each limb of the V being a longitudinal half of one portion.
In order to make the process clear, as I conceive it, reference to the accompanying diagrams will be necessary: — Fig. 12 represents diagrammatically a chromosome differentiated from the strepsi- nematous thread. It is composed of two portions twisted on each other, and each portion is a segment of the original dolichonematous thread, and has been brought into juxtaposition with a similar segment of the same thread and twisted round it. In the same diagram one of these portions is marked with spots and one with circles. A longitudinal division is also shown running down each portion. For the sake of clearness one half of one portion is marked with larger, and the other half with smaller circles. Similarly the adjacent portion is longitudinally divided into an half marked with large and an half marked with small spots. This longitudinal division has been recorded by several writers. In fig. 12 is represented the structure of a chro- mosome, with four free ends, such as is figured in fig. 3 and 4, while in fig. 13 is shown the structure of the common looped form of chromo- some. For the sake of description we will designate each twisted portion (t.«., that marked with circles or spots) of the double chromo-
1 Ann. of Bot., Sept. 1896, fig. 23 : and June, 1897, fig. 13. 3 Ber. cL deutsch. bot. Ges. 1897 Taf . xt., fig. 1 ; and Mottier. Jabrb. f. wiss. Bot. 1897. Taf. iii., 15. 'Xac. fif., fig. 21.
Dixon — Itrst Miiosis of Spore-mother-celh of Lilium. 9
some a prmt^ ehromoiome. Elsewhere I have given reasons for regarding these as homologous to the chromosomes of the vegetative mitoses.'
When the chromosomes arrange themselves in the equatorial plate their greatest length is approximately horizontal and radially disposed. Apart from this their orientation seems very various. Thus the loops may lie towards the periphery or towards the centre, and the ends in planes parallel to or inclined to the equatorial plane. In the later stages of the equatorial plate the loops, where they are found, are broken transversely at the hend. In the equatorial plate the chromo- somes hecome thick and lumpy. The twist of the primary chromo- somes round one another hecomes reduced usually to half or quarter a complete turn. The inner end of the chromosome hecomes produced into two attenuate processes (fig. 14), which attach themselves to the fibres of the achromatic spindle (fig. 15). This attachment does not, I venture to think, take place as other writers assume, i,e, connecting the primary chromosomes to opposite poles; hut rather each primary chromosome forms connections with fihres from hoth poles (fig. 15) This view has been forced on me not only by the consideration of the later stages, e.^. during the separation of the daughter chromosomes from the equatorial plate; but also by actual observation of the attach- ment the chromosomes to the spindle fibres. This observation is best made in sections cutting the equatorial plate obliquely. Then the chromosome may be seen as drawn in fig. 11. Careful focussing of a polar view of the equatorial plate will also sometimes reveal this method of attachment. While an equatorial view of the same, as in fig. 6, will often exhibit a chromosome like that on the right of the figure in which the pointed processes of the chromosome are seen dis- tinctly connecting each primary chromosome to upper and lower fibres. As these attenuate processes have all the appearance of a viscid substance it will be understood that this method of attachment niay be effected, no matter how the chromosome is oriented in the equatorial plate, provided that its greatest length is radial. In the case of the more uncommon longer chromosomes which assume the bend in the equatorial plate before alluded to, the attachment taking place in the middle of the chromosome is difficult to make out. But in all probability it is effected in the same manner, i.e. each primary chromosome forms connections with the fibres of both poles.
^ Chromofiomefl of LiUum lortffijlorum. Pioo. E.I. A. loc, eit. Of. Belajeff Ber. d. ^^utaeL hot. Oes. 1898 ; Ueber Redactionstheileii dea Pflanzenkemes.
10 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
Figs. 14, 15, 16, and 17 represent the equatorial aspect of a chromo- some in the equatorial plate. Fig. 1 4 shows the chromosome in the plate before the processes have become drawn out along the spindle -fibres. In 15 the processes of the primary chromosome marked with circles are shown connected with fibres both from the north pole and the south pole The half marked with small circles is attached to the north polnr fibres, and that with the larger circles to the fibres of the south pole. In the same manner the longitudinal halves of the dotted primary chromo- some are connected with opposite poles. When the splitting of the chromosomes is effected, the process continues, as is represented by figs. 1 6 and 1 7. The half marked with large circles draws out between the halves marked with small dots and small circles. These latter are drawn towards the north pole, and form a V-shaped daughter chromo- some, composed of half the dotted primary chromosome and half of the primary chromosome marked with circles. The limbs of the V are caused to diverge by the drawing out of the half marked with large circles between them. The V formed simultaneously of the remaining halves of the primary chromosomes is drawn to the south pole. Its limbs are splayed by the fact that the half marked with small dots is drawn out between them. Fig. 1 7 will make the final stage of the process clear. Fig. 18 represents the general appearance of the two daughter chromosomes leaving the equatorial and viewed in a radial direction looking towards the centre. The ends of the limbs are often twisted slightly round each other, as shown in this figure ; sometimes, how- ever, they lie side by side. As the chromosomes draw apart from one another the ends untwist, until finally, when just parting asunder, they are vertically over one another in the position most usually figured. But, again, it very often happens that while the twist of one pair of limbs unravels, the other pair remain engaged, and so an appearance such as is shown in fig. 7 is produced. This appearance is also figured by Strasburgher and Mottier. * In the diaster this retar- dation manifests itself by the fact, that one limb of the V as it tends towards the pole is drawn out and very attenuate towards the apex (fig. 8), and lags behind the other.
From the above description of the formation of the chromosomes, and their division in the nuclear plate, it will be seen that the author does not believe that this first mitosis of the spore-mother-cells is a differential or " reducing " division. The two daughter nuclei receive half of each primary chromosome, which is itself a segment of the
» Ber. d. deutsch. bot. Gcs., 1897. Taf. xt., fig. 1.
Dixon — Uni Mitosis of Spors-^noiher-eeUs of Lilium. 11
original dolichonematons thread. Whether or no, a differential division is eecnred bj the succeeding mitosis of the daughter nuclei is a matter of dispute. Belajeff, ^ Guignard, ' and Gregoire, ' all maintain that no tnie longitudinal fission of the chromosomes takes places in that mitosiB. Consequently, if we accept the scheme put forward in this note, a reducing division does take place in the formation of the sexual cells. This poeition is accepted by BelajefP, who believes that there is bnt one longitudinal fission in the first mitosis. Guignard and Gregoiie urge that although there is no longitudinal fission in the second mitosis, that there is a double fission in the first, which compensates for the want of one in the second. The chromosomes which have erisen by the second longitudinal fission of the first mitosis come to lie and to end, and in the second mitosis separate by transverse fission.
General agreement on this difficult point, as to whether there is an actual longitudinal fission in the second mitosis or not, is far from being attained. Thus Miss Sargant, Strasburger* and Mottier, and myself, have convinced ourselves that at least aU the appearances of longitudinal cleavage are presented in this second mitosis. If this view is accepted the scheme advocated here involves no reducing division.
In conclusion, I wish to express my thanks to Mr. Charles Green, vho kindly drew several of the diagrams used in this note, and helped me in the construction of several of the remainder.
^Ueber die BeductioiiBtheiliiiig des Pflanzenkemes. Ber. d. deutsch. hot. Oea.^ 1899.
*Loe.€it. ^Zoccit.
* NoxB Addxd IK THV Pkbu. — Still more receotly StrasbuTger has returned agun to the view that no longitudinal cleavage takes place in this second mitosis. Ildber Bedoctionstheilung, &c., in Pflanzenreicb. Jena, 1900.
12 Proceedings of the Boyal Irish Academy.
EXPLANATION OF PLATES L aot U.
[Figures 1-11 all camera Itieida drawings ; magnification, 1000 diameters.]
Figures.
1 . Cell with nucleus in dolichonema stage.
2. Cell with nucleus in strepsinema stage.
S and 4. Formation and thickening of chromosomes. The primary chromosomes are cross-hatched in different directions.
5. Polar view of the nuclear plate.
6. Equatorial view of the same.
7. Chromosomes leaving the nuclear plate. On the right the
lateral displacement of the daughter chromosomes relative to one another is shown.
8. Daughter chromosomes approaching the poles.
9. Portions of the strepsinematous thread.
10. Tangential section of a nucleus showing the looping of the
dolichonematous thread to form the strepsinematous con- dition.
11. Ohlique view of a nuclear plate showing the connexion of
each primary chromosome with each pole. 12 to 18. Diagrams to illustrate the hehaviour of the chromosomes during the first mitosis of the spore-mother-cells.
[ 13 ]
n.
ON THE PLACE OP THE AU8DEENUNQ8LEHRE IN THE GENEBAL ASSOCIATIVE ALGEBRA OP THE QUATERNION TYPE. By CHARLES J. JOLT, M.A., P.T.C.D.
[Bead, Fbbrva&t 18, 1900.]
Thkrv is a cardinal distmction between Quaternions and other alge- braic aystems of space analysis. So far as I know Quaternions and algebras of the Quaternion type alone are both Associative and Distributive. Of the other systems, some are associative but not distiibTitive, some distributive but not associative. The Ausdehn^ imgdehre is distributive but only partially associative.
It is worth while inquiring whether the Ausd$hnung%Uhre can be included in the distributive and associative algebra whose units obey the laws of Quaternions
t,* = - 1 and i,%t + t>', = 0. (a)
We shall, in what follows, use the term vector (when not otherwise qualified) to denote a linear function of some or all of the units with scalar coefficients, and we shall generally employ small Greek letters for the symbols of vectors. Also we shall restrict the words product^ wMiUipfyy &c. to the results of operations and to operations in accord- ance with the laws of the units. Purther, when we speak of a set of itaiits, we imply that they satisfy equations (a).
If in accordance with (a) we form the complete product or simply the product of any number of vectors vj, va, ... v^ and reduce as far as possible by the aid of the fundamental relations, it is obvious that the result will, in general, consist of sums of irreducible products of the units of the orders n, n - 2, n - 4, &c., each product being multiplied by a scalar coefficient. 'Hence we may write if we separate these sums of products into groups of the same order,
Viflrjflr, ...«•»= r^WiWa ...«-„+ V^VyV% ...«-« + &c.
Vj^j^ being a sign of selection of groups of products of the units of the order indicated by the suffix.
14 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy,
It is apparent if n exceeds the number of the nnits, that the group Vn does not occur. In fact the highest order that can occur is given bj the equation
ii~2msi\r, or by ii-2m = iV-l,
where N is the number of the units, according as n and N are botli odd or even, as in the first case, or one even and the other odd as in the second.
We shall now show that there is the closest analogy between a Orassmann combinatorial product of n point symbols and the function '^••«^i«'t . • . «r.. We shall suppose, in the first place, n to be less than J\r, the number of the units.
Comparing, then, a combinatorial " product " of point symbols
PiPtJH • . • jPiw and the group of highest order in the product of n vectors
rfflriV%Vi . . . v^,
we see at once the following points of similarity : —
(1). Both vanish if two constituents are the same. For if
vi = v, = a?ih + a^i'a + . . . + Xj^i^ wi* = - a?i» - a^» ~ . . . -a?^*,
and the complete product wiv^v^ • • • 'v^ has its highest group of the order n - 2 at most.
(2). No change is produced in cither if we replace p^ and w^ by jPs -h tpi and trs + tvif t being a scalar.
(3). Interchange of contiguous symbols changes the sign of both. We may replace w% by twi + w'a where w\ is at right angles to Wi, or where wiv\ = - tr'tVi, Hence
FJiVitTj . . . tr,, = V^ixriV » . . . ir^ = — ^n^ i^i • • • '■'n = - ynV2WiWi . . . w^,
(4). Both obey the associative law expressed by
PlPi '"I>m*Pm*l '"Pn and Vn ^m'^x'^Tk • • • ^m' ft-ii^^mkX • • • '^n-
For, in forming the group of highest order in the complete product viVj . . . Vm • w^i . . . tr„, it is useless to retain any but the highest
JoLY — On the Place of the Ausdehnunsleghre. 15
groups in the sub-products V|Vs . . . vr^ and v^i ... v^. In other words, in the above expression V^ and F,»^ are superfluous symbols.
(5). We may replace tbe expressions by
and K^iKh ' "K
where 4 =!?& -jPu &c., and X, = tr, - Wi.
(6). We can, by assuming the origin to be arbitrary, suppose the vector «ri to be the symbol of a point. ^ We have X, = «ra - wi a vector equal to that between the points, and FjWiXa we may interpret as a point vector ; also the interpretations of FsViXaXs, &c. are obvious.
We may, in forming the product, replace wj by twi -f i/j where 172 is at right angles to «r„ we may put trj = fwi + f'rj^ + v^, where 173 is at right angles to vi and w^ or to vi and 172, and we have finally
F^jiriflTaVa . . . -Br^ = Wirf2% . . . t7«i
the symbol V^ being unnecessary on the right-hand side, as the product is irreducible.
From this follow all Grassmann's conceptions of the continuous products of points. The product of two is the point-line joining them ; the product of three the point-plane determined by their completed parallelogram ; the product of four the point- volume of the completed parallelepiped determined by the four points.
An apparent break in the parallelism occurs when the order of the product equals the number of the units. Grassmann defines the products of this order to be scalars. In our case F]v^i^2 - . . vj^ it* equal to a scalar multiplied by O (= »i«3 . . . »/v) the product of all the units.' iPor present purposes we need not at all inquire into the nature of Q. We are entitled to identify where n is less than iV, a Grassmann " product " with V^vriWz . . . tr„ ; and where n equals N we may identify a Grassmann product with the scalar
r j^WiV2 . • • Wj^ • I* ■
Having reached the iT* order in a product, Grassmann equates his result to a scalar and forms successive products by multiplying this
* This is precisely what Hamilton does.
* It is easy to prove by the principles of the present paper that n is the same for all sets of units in the spaee under consideration.
16 Proceedings of the Royal Insh Academy.
scalar by new points. At this place the associative law breaks do^wn. We can imitate Grassmann's procedure not by ear-tnarhing the fonction
but by dividing the function F^wi^a . . . wj^ by O, and proceeding along the associative lines of our algebra. Of course the laws of the algebra afford the equation
We have the Grassmann product
P1P2 . • • PnPn^x • • • Pn^m} and our equivalent
Vj^ViVi . . . V^Qr^ ^■•'■'jV+l'B^JV+2 • • • 'WjV+ni*
We have moreover the conception of eomplemenU expressed by the functions
V^viwz ...«•» and V^_^'ar^iv^2 . . . tr^ . O"^
We have still to see how we can include in the associative algebra propositions like the following : — " The product of two posited quanti- ties which have no common figure is some multiple of the connecting figure," or "The product of the two posited quantities which must have a common figure is the common figure multiplied by a number."
Take these two functions having a common figure
F„iriir2 ...«-,. and F^ipa . . . pm,
and, by the process of (6.), reduce them to the form
F»'7if2€3 . - • ^rO'iO'a - * - <r^t and F^i/iCaCj . . . €,TiT, . . . t,^,
where 171 is the point symbol of some point in the common figure, and €,€3, &c. are vectors of the common figure. Por these we may write
r,i7i€a€3 ...€«. Vn-i^ia'2 . . . or^< and FjiyiCjCj . . . c, . F^«TiT2 . . . t„^ ;
since the symbols V^ and V^ are superfluous, <r and t being exclusive of 77 and €, or at right angles to them. The complete product of these is
t F,17i€2€3 ...€<• F<17i€3<8 ... C, . V^^^ya^ • • . O'l^.i . FJi^TiTj . . . T„>o
or if we attend particularly to the sign, though this is immaterial, we
Jolt — On the Place of the Ausdehnungakhre. 17
miwt replace ± by the definite yalue (- l)*t*^>. From this complete product, if we select the part
^tliUU . - . <« ^i»H»-<^i«a • • • ««o'iO'a • • • ^iWir% . . . t,^,
▼e have the Grassmann "product" when we divide by O, the prodnct ois^ut otn + m-t units in the space containing both figures. The symbols Fj^ and V^^ are suppressed, being unnecessary.
When the functions have no common figure, the Grassmann product is simply
^'^«+i»'»^l«'2 • • • '^nPxPi • • • Pw
As examples, take two-point line vectors V^viv^ and V^^Pf H they are contained in a common plane, since they have a common point, they may be replaced by F'jWov'i and Fatroir'a, and the Grass- mann product is Vq Viv^viv/t divided by the product of the three units when the product Ib planimetric. If they have no common point, the ** product'* is Fiviw^iPa, divided by the product of the four units ▼hen the product is stereometric. The principles of the associative algebra allow us to write
by the law of interchanges or otherwise. Hence we see that "mul- tiplication " of two lines in space is a " commutative operation."
It would be tedious to dwell on other parallelisms between the Ausdehnunffslehre and the exceedingly restricted use of the general associative algebra to which it corresponds. I may mention, however, that Grassmann' s quotients or matrices are simply operators of a very special kind of the type q { ) q~^ considered in a paper on " The Associative Aigebra of Hyper-space."^ Also the continued Grassmann product F],triV2 . . . 'or, may be expressed in the form of a deter- minant
'■'it W^2,
Wi, iTa,
consisting of the same row of vectors repeated n times, if we agree that the determinant shall be expanded just as if its constituents were
J Pix>c. B. I. A., 3rd Ser., Vol. V., No. 1.
&.I.A. PVOC., SEB. HI., VOL. VI. 0
18 Proceedings of the Boyal Irish Academy.
scalars, with the single restriction^ that the order of the vectorB in the expansion shall take the order of their positions in the columns.
We thus conclude that the AusdehnungsUhre^ as adapted to a space of II dimensions, may be regarded as a part of the associative algebra of n + 1 dimensions limited by more or less arbitrary restrictions. We see that the conceptions of progressive and regressive multiplication are partial aspects of a complete operation which alone is entitled to the name multiplication. In this respect the AusdehnungsUhre resembles several systems of vectorial analysis, and for very similar reasons. The point symbol is introduced by the artifice of leaving the origin arbitrary, not as Hamilton did in the space under investi- gation, but in a space of one dimension higher.
[ 19 ]
m.
ON THE EPIDIORITE AND MICA SCHISTS OF KILLINET PARK, CO. DUBLIN. By PEOF. J. P. O'REILLY, C.E.
(Plates III. and IV.). [Bead Jakitart 22, 1900.]
Tee lelations of the granite with the mica schists in the neighbour- lM)od of Elliney, Co. Dnblin, are very fully gone into in the memoir explanatory of the sheets of the Geological Survey of Ireland, Nos. 102 and 112 (1875). On p. 33 particulars are given as to the mica schist, and its alteration from Lower Silurian slate, which, the writer of the memoir observes, may be more especially seen over the rugged ground of Eoche's Hill and that lying to the west of Killiney Park. Bescribing the Lower Silurian slate, he says : —
**This mass of slate consists of beds of gray mica slate, with bands of gray, close-grained grits, usually micaceous, but very compact, the dips of all being invariably to the south-east, at from 40^ to 60°. This high, steady inclination of the beds gives them the appearance of dipping down into the granite, and on a level surface would make them seem as if they were interstratified with it. The fan of the ground, however, and the exposure in the cliffs show that tlie beds are cut off by the granite below, and that they rest in wedge-shaped troughs of that rock, the outline of which has no reUtion to the dip or strike of the beds."
At p. 34, describing in detail the relations of the mica schists and granites to the west of the patch on which is situated Victoria Castle, he says : —
** To the west of this the slates appear in great force, and extend northwards into the granite under the village of Killiney, and close to tbe elevation marked 480 on the map, having, however, a long i^anow tongue of granite stretching into them for the distance of SoO yards between Killiney and the elevation just named. The maximum width of the mass of slate is over 500 yards. To the sonth o! Xilliney village the dip of these beds is south, at 70° to 80° .
02
20 Proceedings of the Royal Irkh Academy.
inclined from the granite, or they are vertical, with an east-to-west strike. And between Killiney Lodge and Killiney Park they seem as if interstratified with lenticular dykes of granite, adjoining to which they become full of crystals of andalusite. The boundary of the slate and granite, as it is obserred to the west of Salliney Park, is very intricate, one rock entering the other in long dykes and tongues, as may be seen by reference to the south-west comer of the sketch-map given on fig. 10, p. 35.
''The remaining portion of the boundary between the slates and the granite southwards, from Ballybrack cross-roads to the edge of the map, a distance of a mile and a-quarter, is quite concealed by a thick deposit of drift, so that the boundary line between them is a rather hypothetical one, being drawn from the form of the ground only."
It will be observed that, in describing this particular part of the granite lying about Killiney, no mention is made of '' trap rocks " as occurring in the formation, but in the description of the beds at Howth, and those shown in the south-west comer ef the map, distinct reference is made to them. Thus, at p. 36, he says : —
*'When the imaltered Silurian slates appear in the south-west comer of the map, they are plentifully associated with fairly crystal- line trap rock, which is sometimes porphyritic, occurring in large and small lenticular masses, as well as in dykes and veins of narrow dimensions, and along with these are equally numerous beds of compact gray ash."
In the present paper I propose to examine the beds occurring in the locality referred to on p. 34 of the Memoir, and described as lying between Killiney Lodge and Killiney Park. Owing to the develop- ment of residential properties in this locality, and the consequent alterations in the old boundary lines since the date of the Memoir in question, it is necessary, in order that the lie of the ground in the locality may be better understood, to give the names of the present residences and grounds, as marked on the more recent Ordnance maps, which are laid down on a scale of five feet to the mile, and numbered zxiii. 97 and xxvi. 17.
Examining these, it will be observed that the road which branches off to the W.S.W. from Killiney village at Glenalua Lodge turns to the S.W. at Venetian Cottage, and continues to Glenalua Lodge, where it inflects to the W.N.W. at the entrance to Hendri. Quite near this it crosses the well-marked fault existing between the granite and the mica schist in this locality. The direction of this fault is about K. 17^ 38' E., and is remarkable in that, as pointed out in my
O'Beilly— 0» the Epidiorite and Mica Schists of Killiney, 21
paper '* On the Directions of the main lines of Jointing ahout the Bay of Dublin" (E.I.A. Proceedings, ser. n., vol. iy., p. 259), it is one of the set of joints the direction of which corresponds or is parallel to the coast-line direction between Gamsore Point and Wicklow Headf and also to that of the boundary line which limits the granite of WicUow on the west side between Castledermott and Ooresbridge. In the table of " Frequency of Occurrence^" given on p. 304 of same paper, the direction N. 16^ 31' E. (the mean of 26 occurrences obaerred) is shown to be the most frequent in the locality considered, and therefore geologically of structural importance.
Near the gateway of Glenalua Lodge, when coming from Killiney village, the observer meets on the north side, or right hand, a rough piece of ground, showing outcrops of the mica schists so characteristic of the locality, and at one or two points, immediately under the bomidary wall of Glenalua Lodge, outcrops of a rock which will be further considered. Apparentiy this was the quarry of slate rock referred to in the Geological Survey lA emoir already cited, and from which the stones found in its boundary walls, and more particularly in the coping of the boundary wall of the quarry next the road, were taken ; the outcrops of the rock in question, being extremely hard, and not easily worked, were left outstanding, and therefore quite accessible for examination. The fault already referred to traverses this old quarry field, and passes into the adjacent grounds of the Lodge. At the point marked B on the accompanying enlarged plan of the ground, is a wicket-gate, giving ingress on to the hiU, to the west of Stoneleigh ; here a bajrely traceable path skirts the margin of the granite on its sonth side, and leads to the back-entrance of that property. From this entrance (marked C on the accompanying plan) there extends along the boundary wall, to the gate leading into Killiney Park, a patch of ground showing markedly the mica schist outcrops, tongued by the granite as described in the Memoir, and in certain bands thereof, marked on the plan with the letter D, a crystalline rock of the same nature as that which outcrops in the old quarry at Glenalua Lodge already referred to, bearing every evidence of its metamorphism from the associated slate rock and mica schists. This rock, marked on the enlarged map accompanying (D. m. s.) (Dioritic mica schist), is of a dark-green colour, usually fine grained, highly crystalline, sometimes porphyroidal, and where most markedly crystalline breaking easily into rhomboidal fragments, very much after the way of certain feld^athic rocks. The mean density of a sample was found to be 3*105, and thin sections of the same piece showed, under polarized
22
Proeeedinft of tht Boyal Irkh Academy.
|
ition there |
•of as ioli< |
ows: — |
|
SiOt. |
60-16 1400 |
|
|
FcO, |
1404» |
|
|
MgO, |
7-62 |
|
|
CaO, |
9-60 |
|
|
NatO, |
3-97 |
|
|
H,0, |
0-39 |
lighty not only the honiblendic and qnaitz granules, bnt aim abundant magnetite and Titanic iron.'
A sample of the rock was submitted for analysis to Mr. S. Templeton, As. R.C.S. Dub., and F.G.S. of Belfast, and he reported
99096.
This may be compared with the following analysis : — [Sf. Gratitt = 3-11.]
SiOt, .
A1,0,, .
FeiO,, .
FcO, .
MnO, .
CaO, .
MgO, .
K,0. .
NaaO, .
TiOj, . Lofls <m ignition.
|
!.» |
n.* |
|
|
48-90 |
49-78 |
|
|
1602 |
13-13 |
|
|
12-62 |
4-36 |
|
|
1-12 |
11-71 |
|
|
0-04 |
|
|
|
8-22 |
8-92 |
|
|
6-24 |
6-40 |
|
|
117 |
1-06 |
|
|
3-87 |
2-39 |
|
|
0-26 |
2-22 |
|
|
1-66 |
H,0, |
1-14 |
|
CO,, |
010 |
100-2
10019
Teal says, p. 197 : —
'' Bighland$ of Scotland, — ^Basic, igneous rocks, essentially com- posed of plagioclase and pyroxene, are found associated with the gneisses and schists of the region. They have not as yet received
1 See notice of it by Henry J. Seymour, b. a., in the Irish IfatwralUt, 1896, p. 137.
> A small fraction of the iron was found to exist aa FesOs.
' From Zirkers L^hrbueh der PetrographU (yo\. ii. 1894, p. 485) of aquartsoeey &irite from Swaitzenberg (Yosges).
. I « Bulk analyaia of a hornblende schist taken from Teale*8 Britiih BttrogrmpK^^ 1688, p. 200.
O'Bbillt— On the JEpidioriie and Mica Schists ofKilliney. 23
much attention at the hands of the petrographers. A dyke occurring in the Hebridean gneissic systems of Sutherlandshire, near the village of Scourie, has been examined by the author, and has been already referred to as iUustratmg the passage of a massive igneous rock into a crystallized schist. It also illustrates the passage of a massive plagio- dsse-pyroxene rock into a massive plagioclase-homblende rock (epi- diorite (see pi. 20).
"The gradual replacement of the pyroxene by hornblende is the most striking figure. The resulting hornblende may be fibrous actino- lite or compact."
(The fig. 25, three-fourths natural size, represents well the Kilhney rock under consideration.)
At p. 200 he says : —
'' There seems no reason to doubt that the change of the plagio- dase-pyroxene rock to epidiorite and hornblende schist as the result of the dynamic metamorphism which has affected the district. Where there has been no differential movement in the rock-mass, we have the massive epidiorite ; where differential movement has taken place, the schist has been produced. Why certain portions of the dyke have retained their original characters, whilst other portions have been so completely metamorphosed, we cannot at present explain Many dykes similar to that of Scourie doubtless occur in the Highlands of Scotland ; and it is quite possible that many bands of hornblende aehist may represent dykes, or sheets, which have been incorporated, as it were, with the general gneissic series."
That the mica schist beds of Killiney have undergone meta- morphism, and that the epidiorite in question is a result of that action there, is suggested, all the more strongly the more carefully tiie ground, as a whole, is studied. On p. 32 of the Memoir cited oecors a foot-note by Professor Hull, with reference to the excellent sketch, by Du Noyer, of the south-east end of the line of junction of the mica schist with the granite, which appears as a woodcut on p. 38 of the Memoir, and which is mainly intended to show the remarkable distribution of the mica in the granite at the point of eontact. Professor Hull says: — "The boss of granite figured on p. 33 appears to me to be simply a case of foliation, and an evidence that this portion of the granite is of metamorphic origin."
The character here presented by the rocks may be traced, more or leas clearly, along the main line of contact of the mica schists with the granite, so that if a metamorphic action is to be presumed in the e, it may equally well be admitted for the rest.
24 Proceedings of the Boyal Irish Academy.
The examination of the epidiorite in this section was made by Mr. Henry J. Seymonr, b.a., of the Irish Geological Survey, and a description thereof formed the suhject of a communication hy him to theDuhlin Microscopical Club (see /rwA Naturalutj 1896, p. 137). In a subsequent letter to me he says : —
'* The description given by Teal on p. 198, Br, Petrography (plates 18 and 20) applies perfectly to this rock from Killiney Park (see especially plate 20, fig. 2). There is little doubt that most of the feldspar, and practically all the hornblende, is secondary, and that the rock has resulted from the dynamic metamorphism of a basic pyroxene aphanite, or dolerite. The secondary character of the amphibole is best seen in the slice parallel to the plane of schistosity, and in which the ferro-magnesian constituent is seen to be actinolite. In this slide also the crushing out of the magnetic iron element is irell shown. Some zoisite occurs in the rock, and is probably derived from the alteration of the original feldspathic constituent."
The epidiorite outcrops on Yico Eoad, at a point about 80 to a 100 yards north of the gate which gives entrance to Victoria Park, in this locality. The water-channel along the footpath of the road from the cross-roads at Ballybrack to Shanganagh is paved with smooth, water-worn cobbles of this rock, which, in all probability, were taken from the seashore, and which would tend to indicate the presence of an outcrop of the rock on the shore, though probably now completely covered over by the shingle and sand thrown up by the sea.
The mica schists which enclose the epidiorites, and with which this is so intimately connected, presents characteristics which may be found in certain beds of the Bray Head series of rocks, some of them being of very fine grain, and therefore not at once recognis- able as mica schist. In the railway cutting south of the Brandyhole Tunnel, there is a well-marked outcrop of this mica schist ; it also occurs in the beds which show themselves on the path about 90 yards south of Lord Meath's gate-house. It would be very interesting to compare this mica schist with that of Killiney Park, since the rocks outcropping here might really be the same series as that found at Bray Head, but in a much more metamorphosed state. A sample of the Killiney mica schist was submitted to Mr. W. S. Warren, chemist, of Westland-row, for analysis, and he reported thereon as follows : —
** Received December 16th, 1896, from Prof. J. P. O'Reilly, c.e.. Royal College of Science, Dublin, a sample of a crude rock, marked
O'BsiLLT— On the Epidiorite and Mica Schists of KilUney. 25
5o. 76. I have made a minute and careful examination of tluB
sample, and find it to contain —
Per cent.
SiOi, 68102
FesOs, 3-522
FeO, 4-086
AlaO,, 24-286
CaO, ....... 1-360
MgO, 2-066
NiO, 0016
MnO, Trace.
liO,, 0-961
Tungsten, 0-212
KaO, 1-270
NaiO, 3-612
Loss on ignition, 0*101
100-082
'' In the special analysis for NiO and Tungsten, 100 grammes of sample were acted upon. There are slight indications of YasOs being present, but in such minute quantities, that it would be nearly impossible to make a rough guess at the quantity, as when 200 grammes were acted upon, the colour- test was applied, and even then the indication for YatOs were not sure at all.
(Signed), ''W. 8. Wahrew."
The presence of WOa was considered so interesting, that a portion of the sample was submitted for examination to Mr. Hugh Bamage, Assistant Ch^nist in the Laboratory of the Eoyal College of Science, Ihblin, and F.C.S., and he, after most careful and special testing for Tungsten, was unable to detect any trace of it in the sample submitted to him. Mr. Warren's analysis is, however, given as bearing on the qnestion of the relations of the rocks in Xilliney Park one with the other, and maybe of interest as regards the mica schists of Bray lead, to be yet examined.
L 26 ]
IV.
THE BEAUFORT'S DYKE, OFF THE COAST OF THE MULL OF GALLOWAY. By G. H. KINAHAN, District Surveyor (Retired), H. M. Geological Survey.
[Plate V.]
[Read, Apbil 21, 1900.]
The proposed construction of a Submarine Tunnel from Ireland to Scotland has developed attention to one of the most remarkable natu- ral phenomena in connexion with the actions of wind and tidal currents in the deep sea — that is, the travelling sands and gravels, and their adjuncts, in the gulch called the ''Beaufort's Dyke," off thecoast of the Mull of Galloway.
In the sea between L*eland and Great Britain there are various perplexing and unexplained deep-sea currents that go under various names according to the localities, such as — races, dykes, ditches, undersucks, etc. These are conspicuous in connection with the sand- banks off the Leinster coast. The "races" are not the ordinary '' tidal race" in a narrow channel, but a current that starts off nearly perpendicularly to the coast line, towards the "tail" of one of the banks. All these different currents vary in accordance with the state of the tide ; being generally more conspicuous during the spring tides than the neaps. These variations, especially of the undersucks and ditches, are so vagrant that, as a general rule, the fishermen are afraid to shoot their nets inside the banks off the south-east coast. On this account it was proposed, some fifteen years ago, that the Royal Society should apportion a part of their Scientific Grant to inves- tigate these obscure currents. As, however, at that time, there was no competent person disengaged, who would undertake the investi- gations, the proposal fell to the ground.
All these peculiar currents are of great interest; but, at the present time, we are specially engaged with those that have a con- nexion with the "Beaufort's Dyke." Formerly all the best authorities
KiSAnAV^Beau/arfg Dyke^ coast of the Mull of Oalloway. 27
insisted that tidal and wind waves were inoperative below very limited depths. This subject was studied during a series of yeara bj the writer, who proved, by indisputable evidence, that the actions of the currents, due to the combination of tidal and wind waves, was much deex>er than was supposed.
The results of these inquiries have appeared in the Publications of this Academy, the Institutions of Civil Engineers, England and Ireland, and in those of the Geological Societies of England, Ireland, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Manchester, etc.
The earlier observers may be excused, as it was then generally believed, that the greatest denudation took place at low water. This supposition was very excusable, as it would appear obvious that tidal currents have more effect at low-water than previously. Now, however, it is known that the greater the depth of the water, the greater the force ; consequently the greatest denudation takes place at the high-water of the spring-tides — that is, the denudation is in ratio to the deptb of the water. To go fully into this subject would occupy a considerable space : we may, therefore, take it as proved, ind refer those interested to the reports on the subject. It can, however, be seen that this being proved, the original ideas on tidal denudation and effects must be considerably modified ; more especially a^ the travelling-sands, gravels, and their adjuncts, in the '^Beaufort's Dyke," show conditions that vary from any previous records, as there are sands, gravels, and their adjuncts, at depths of from 120 to 144 fathoms (600 to 864 feet in that place), that are carried backward Ukd forward similarly to those on an ordinary sea-beach.
The early surveyors used sounding-lines of limited lengths, so that, on their charts, all exceptional deeps are unrecorded ; we there- fore cannot give the early history of the "Beaufort's Dyke," as no ehart could be found in which these depths are recorded earlier than 1867. The next chart is dated 1879 ; then we have one in 1885, and others in 1890, 1894, 1897, and 1898. The map lately published in the Daily Graphic seems to have been made from the soundings taken early in either 1897 or 1898, but there is no chart now to be bought showing a similar outline. Prom the 1897 chart, we learn that then the gulch forked to the northward, and had lessened in that direction : it had also shoaled-up very much ; while south-east of the Bill of the KqU, there was a remarkable deep of over 120 fathoms. Shoaling-up •eems also to have taken place in 1879; while in 1869 the gulch ▼as cleared in a great measure of the sands and their adjuncts. When the 1897 chart was made, the shallow in the gulch was on a line
28
Proceedings of the Boyal Irish Academy.
between Donagbadee and tbe Scotcb coast, at a point about ball- way between tbe Bill of tbe Mull and Port Patrick.
According to tbe information on the cbarts, eacb cbart offered for sale is stated to be up to date, containing tbe latest information. Sometimes, bowever, tbey seem to let tbeir work get into arrears ; as in the early part of 1897, when I first took up this inquiry, there were six different charts of tbe area— the cbart of tbe British Isles, 1867; a cbart dated 1879; another of 1885; another of 1890; another of 1894; and, another of 1897; since then there has been a great change, as most of these charts have been cancelled and amalgamated into three or four, viz. : — cbart of British Isles (up to date) ; a cbart, No. I., Irish Cbannel, which seems, at least in part, old, 1825 a ; and, chart No. 45, east* coast of Ireland ; also, a map of the west coast of Scotland, very similar to 45, east Ireland. This Irish chart is dated July, 1897, and seems to be more recent than the Scotcb chart. In the Daily Graphic, July, 1899, Mr. Barton published a chart — ^pre- sumably this is a correct copy from one of the cancelled charts, as it is different to the charts now on sale. The last chart (No. I., Irish Channel) is said to be corrected up to November, 1898. It is a most elaborate chart, as in it the colour as well as the composition of the soundings are given.
The following Table was drawn up from the charts procurable early in 1897. The present cbart of 1897 is slightly different from the early one ; to this Table are added the figures taken from the 1898 chart : — A. column gives the date, B. the soimdings on a line from the Gobbins, Lame, to Gorsewall, and C. those on the direct line from Donagbadee to Port Patrick :—
|
A. |
B. |
C. |
|
1867 |
126 to 138 fathoms. |
138 to 144 fathoms. |
|
1879 |
126 |
80 |
|
1885 |
123 |
123 |
|
1890 |
139 |
117 |
|
1894 |
126 to 139 „ |
117 |
|
1897 |
130 to 139 „ |
146 „ |
|
1898 |
127 |
140 |
It is to be regretted that I cannot produce the cbart of 1894, as
EiNAHAN — Beaufort % Dyke^ Coast of the Mull of Oalloicay. 29
some remarkable changes occurred between that year and 1897 in places, the gnlch being considerably deepened, while the northern portion has become forked, a deep new branch having been scooped oat to the west of the northern portion of the dyke ; as this branch appears in charts 1897 and 1898, and partially in Barton's chart, we may presume his chart was slightly prior to the others.
To what canses are these deep-sea currents due ? Pirst, it has to be considered : — to what is the genesis of the gulch due ? Elsewhere it has been suggested that the " Beaufort's Dyke," or gulch, has a connexion with a compound fault — a right-hand heave that can be dearly seen in this portion of the channel. This fault is probably a ''trough fault," that is, a combination of two or more lines of breakage and shif tings ; these either formed an open shrinkage fissure, or left the materials in the " trough fault," so broken up, that they were easily lifted and carried away by the ice at the time when the great glacier occupied the valley of the basin of the present Irish Sea. One or other, or both, of these forces, combined with the broken-up "fault rock," seems to have been the origin of the gulch. Since then, we know from the sounding in the charts (1867, 1879, 1885, 1890, 1894, 1897, and 1898) that the sands, gravels, etc., in this diasm have been continually shifting, which movements must be due to the tidal- waves in combination with wind-waves.
Haughton, from his investigation of the Tides between Great Britain and Ireland, has proved that the '' Head of the tide surface," in the channel, is in the neighbourhood of the Isle of Man.^ He defines the " Head of a tide," a place where the waters are ** dumped" up, rismg to the greatest height, but having no currents. To the south- ward and northward of the **Head of the tide," in the Irish Sea, there are the *' Hinge lines," or the places where there is the least rise of tide and the greatest currents. My experience and inves- tigations have been principally in connexion with the sea to the southward of the ''Head of tiie tide"; but, at the same time, it Beems evident that the moving sands, and their adjuncts, of the " Beaufort's Dyke," ofE the Mull of GbUoway, must, more or less, have a connexion with the northern Hinge-line, where there is the least rise of tide and the greatest current. This, however, is a subject that should be worked out by the adventurers who propose the for- mation of a tunnel from Ireland to Scotland.
' Ko perceptible tidal corrents occur in a line from Dimdrum Bay to Dalby, Ue of Kan, and from Dooglas, eastward, to Duddon.
30 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
Haughton's definition of the ''Head of the tide," is not quite correct. It ought to be — no surface current. It is evident, as the water comes in, and subsequently goes out below, there must be considerable deep-seated currents — as indeed is evidently proved in the estuary of the Mersey, the currents there being adjuncts of the great ''Head of the tide" in the neighbourhood of the Isle of Man. On chart No. 45, a considerable "race" is marked round the Bill of the Mull, also in the south portion of the " Beaufort's Dyke."
It is allowable to speculate as to the reasons why the gulch has in it sliifting sands and their adjuncts. It is known that, on account of the rotation of the earth, the rise of the tides on the British side of the channel is greater than on the Irish side ; therefore, at the northern Hinge-line, the denudation, due to the deep-sea currents, ought to be greater on the British side than on the Irish side — this seems to be the case, by the records on the different charts. If this is allowed, there ought to be, at this Hinge-line, the greatest currents, in and out, at high- water of spring tides, in the vicinity of the eastern coast-line— that is, off the shore of the Mull of Galloway; and these tidal currents should, during the ebb of the springs, carry the sands and their adjuncts in the gulch northward, and, during the flow, southward — each carriage, either northward or southward, being more or less augmented by favourable wind- waves. Thus, if there were continuous winds from the southward, the sands, etc., should accumulate towards the north of the gulch — the northward carriage being at a maximum; while, if there were continuous winds from the northward, to augment the flow tidal currents, the southern portion of the gulch should be more or less filled up.
These changes in the carrying powers of the currents would fully account for "the Pulls" being sometimes to the southward, and at other times to the northward, in the gulch; but there is still an anomaly in the deep that, according to the charts, seems always to exist south-west of the Bill of the Mull. This deep some- times is gradually connected with the other deeps in the gulch, but often it is separated from them by an accumulation. How, therefore, is this accumulation to be accounted for ? It may be suggested that, at the turn of the tide, the pent-up water in the " Head of the tide," rushes into the south end of the gulch, and cleans it out. This, however, will not account for the formation of the intercepting ac- cumulations. This, possibly, may be due to the driftage southward due to the flow tide, augmented by the wind- waves not being
KiSAmLif^Beaufort^a Dyke^ Coast of the Mull of OaUotoay. 31
eontmnouBly long enough to carry the sands, etc., to the south end of tiie gulch ; they therefore were stopped or even driven backward by the ebb tide current, thus forming an accumulation between the southern deep and the deeps in the otiier portion of the gulch.
All these suggestions are necessarilj extremely speculative, as the charts arc valueless for reliable conclusions, as we do not know under what Qonditions the soundings were made — ^the winds and state of the tide being most important consideration, — a continuous wind, either from the northward or southward, during the survey, would materially affect its correctness. To form correct conclusions from any of the charts, it would be necessary to have also a concise record of the conditions that existed during the time occupied in the Survey.
NOTES ADDED IN PRESS.
The rule of the Admiralty is : all charts should be corrected up to the date of last survey, and all prior charts should be cancelled and withdrawn from sale. I have an old copy of the chart of the British Isles, 1867, but no copies can now be bought of the charts of 1879, 1885, 1890, and 1894. I sent a copy of No. 45 (date of last smrey, July, 1897) ; since then there have been most elaborate surveys —in December, 1897; in May, 1898; in July, 1898; in September, 1898; and, in November, 1898, — the result of these latter surveys being Sheet L, Irish Channel — ^previously Sheet 1 825 a. The principal re-surveys were in August, 1872, and July, 1888.
A remarkable difference between chart 45 (1897), and Sheet!., Iridi Channel, is: on the first, the ** Race,'* at the Bill of the Mull, is made to run west and north-west ; while, on the latter, it is recorded as running into Luce Bay.
What are drifting sands, off the coast of Wexford, Wicklow, and Dublin, composed of? Blocks, sometimes of large dimensions (see pfeyiotts Papers, accounting for how they came there) : gravel (coarse »md), shells (shell-sand), mud (fine sand), ooze (typical mud) — all things that are adjuncts of drifting sands, except the large blocks, will be found in the " Beaufort's Dyke," on chart No. I., of the Irish ChaancL
32 Proceedings of the Boyal Irish Academy.
** Driftmg sands " is the uniyersal general term for sack accumu- lations as are fonnd in the shifting sands off the south-east Irish coast. (See the old and the new editions of the '< Pilot Directions ".}
There seem now to he only three Sheets for sale that show the " Beaufort's Dyke" so named:— East Ireland, Sheet 45 ; Chart No. I., Irish Channel ; and, the General Chart of the British Isles. Sheet 45 is to he cancelled when corrected up to date.
[ 33 ]
THE EARLIEST PERIODICAX JOURNALS PUBLISHED Df DUBLm. Bt E. R. M'CLINTOCK DIX.
[Platbs VI., VIL]
[OOKMVKICATXD BT COUKT FLUlfXlEIT.]
[Bead Fbb&uaat 27, 1900.]
AooosDnro to the accoimts given by both Andrews in his '' History of Brituh Jonmalism " and by Dr. Madden in his '^History of Irish Periodical Liteiatore," the predecessors of the- modem newspaper were pamphlets which first appeared irregularly, and with various titles or headings.
In England, the first regular appearance of such pamphlets, that is tt fixed dates, occurred about the year 1621 or 1622, one of the earliest being entitled '* The Weekly Newes." Others like it followed, and soon took hold upon their readers, and became the channels for conveying both home and foreign news, especially during the Crom- welHan period. Such pamphlets subsequently were often caUed ** Mercury " or " Mercurins," some adjective being attached to it to indicate its character. Then the term " Intelligencer " was used, or ** Intelligence." Later on the appellation " News Letter " was given to thenu At this period they did not appear more than two or three times a week ; many only once a-week.
For many years it was supposed that the earliest appearance of ench *' News Letters " in Dublin took place about the year 1700 ; and for a time '^ Pue's Occurrences " was credited with being the earliest published paper or journal ; but the late Sir John Thomas Gilbert in Ida " History of the City of Dublin " showed that, as early as 1682, the " Dublin Newsletter," published by Robert Thornton, was entitled to the priority hitherto assigned to " Pue's Occurrences." Sir John T. Gilbert's " History of Dublin " was published in 1861 ; and no second edition has appeared. His unexpected death prevented such a re- issue in his lifetime ; and, as his researches were ceaseless, it is possible 1^ he came across still earlier forms of the '* News-Letter " ; but, as ior as I am aware, he has published nothing on the subject.
S.I.A. PBOC., SES. m., VOL. VI. D
34 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
It was, therefore, with considerable interest that I lately reoeiyed Rome particulars of the existence in the Library of Worcester College, Oxford, of pamphlets which, on closer examination (for which I am indebted to the kindness of Mr. Pottinger the librarian), have proved to be early weekly journals, printed and published here in Dublin, at dates ranging from 18 to 23 years earlier than Thornton's *' Dublin News- Letter."
The earliest of these Worcester College pamphlets bears the follow- ing title : —
'' Ak Accouin: of thb Chief OccuBEircES of Ibslamd, toobthkr
WITH SOME PaBTICULABS FBOU EnGLAKD.
From Monday, 12th March, to Monday, the 19th March."
It is a quarto tract, containing only eight pages, printed here by William Bladen in 1659. Bladen was the well-known King's printer in the latter part of the reign of Charles I., and subsequently filled a like post under Cromwell. This particular pamphlet, though not, in fact, so numbered, is evidently the fifth of a series, because its pagi- nation is only **33" to **40," and the signature simply E in fours. It contains an account of the Irish Conyention and a list of the members of the Convention. It has also news from England. There are, however, no advertisements in it. It will thus be seen that there was published here weekly, for a brief time at least, a journal, not only of local afPairs, but with English news. In an elementary form, therefore, this little pamphlet constituted the earliest known form, the infancy, in fact, of the Dublin press. A reproduction of this unique number is, I think, a desideratum.
The second is a more interesting journal. There are fifteen consecutive numbers of it extant in the same library (Worcester College). We also find that this weekly journal has assumed a more concrete name. It is called, "Mercurius Hibemicus," or "Ireland's Intelligencer," " concerning transactions both domestic and foreign." This time we find each weekly issue duly numbered. No. 1 was for the week commencing *'from Tuesday, January 13, to Tuesday, January 20," 1663, that is nearly four years later than "Bladen's Journal."
At this time Charles II. had been restored to the Throne for about three years, and Bladen was no longer printer. In fact no printer's name is given ; but it is stated that this journal was " Printed for 8amuel Dancer at the signe of the Horse Shooe in Castle-street, 1663."
Dix— Earliest Periodical Journals Puhlpihed in Dublin. 35
It 18 further stated that it was '' Pablished with License, according to Order."^ Dancer was a well-known publisher and bookseller in Dublin at that time.
The copy of No. 1 in the Worcester College library is imperfect, for two leayes are missing. It had originally eight pages, but the BQceeeding numbers, down to number 15, contain each four leaves or eight pages, the signatures following consecutiyely from A to P ; bat the pagination, while generally continuous, is sometimes incorrect.
The date 1663 was according to the new style; but whether the publisher had an affection for the old style, or had not the courage angly to adopt the new style, in advance of his generation, or for nme other reason, he returned to the old style, 1662, from number 2 to munber 9. Then number 10 has 1662 on its front page, while the imprint on the last is 1663, the succeeding numbers following that^ date. In number 3, Dancer is described as a bookseller ; and in some of the later numbers his shop is given as ^'next door to the sign of the Bear and Ragged Staffe in Castle-street." The numbers of this jonnial contained not only local, that is Irish news, but also English and foreign news. Advertisements also appear for the first time. There is thus a distinct advance in the native press, and a much nearrr approach to the fully developed newspapers of later years.
Dr. Madden, in his '' History of Early Irish Periodicals," makes no mention whatever of this work, nor have I, so far, found any copy extant in any other library. The collection of tracts in the Worcester College Library is a very good one ; and I am told that they are srranged and catalogued with special care. One cannot but regret that such treasures of our city should now be absent from it, and only to be found at so great a distance. The connexion between the Universities of Oxf oid and Cambridge and this country has existed for untunes ; and hence their libraries are often enriched with copies of onr books, pamphlets, etc., which are not to be found over here. Too httle regard was had in past times for such literary curiosities and tieasores.
It is, I think, of considerable interest to know that in Dublin there ▼as a curious and reading public, who cared, even though but once a-week, to learn of the occurrences and transactions in other parts of their country, and also in England and abroad, at this early period.
' Then can be no doubt, however, that the printer was John Crook, who focoeeded Bladen, aa the King's Printer, in 1661, and printed here down to 1668.
]>2
[ 36 ]
VI.
THE MILESIAN COLONIZATION CONSIDEEED IN RELA- TION TO GOLD-MINING. Br J. P. O'EEILLY, C.E.
[Bead January 22, 1900.]
Ip one considers attentivelj, not only what is actually taking place in South Africa, but also what has been taking place there, in W. Australia, in N. -Western America, and in the Caucasus, in connezioii. with mining, during the last ten or fifteen years, it may fairly be asserted that during the latter half of the nineteenth century, mining enterprise has influenced the social and political development of the world, to an extent probably greater than at any former period of its history. Looking back to the discovery of gold in California in 1847, one can follow the onward rapid course of all the industries and sciences connected with mining or bearing on it, and note the impulse given to commerce, and to emigration from the old world, by the successive developments of gold fields in America, in Australia, and in Africa, with the consequent rapid increase in the modes of conveyance and the means of communication between Europe and the most remote parts of the globe. Going back to the commencement of the sixteenth century and the discovery of America by Columbus, the beginning of another period of intense mining activity may be noted, giving rise to an enormous production of precious metals, mainly in S. America, to the active exploration of the Continent, and to emigrations from Spain, and colonizations of these newly-discovered countries, having for general result profound changes in the social state of European countries and in the balance of power of the nations of Europe.
Were we to go back still further we should have to follow the development of the Roman Empire and note the activity with which the useful and precious metals required for its magnificent works and vast expenditures, were sought out, and worked in the interest of the Imperial Government. Going still farther back we come upon the traces of the Carthaginians, and Phoenicians, and Egyptians; the former so active and skilful in their colonizations, in their mining and trading enterprises ; and we are able to observe how profoundly they were influenced by the more or less abundance of gold and silver.
CEbilly — Mik^ian Colonization relative to Oold-mining. 87
eopper and tin in the countries with which they had intercourse. And if it be not possible to trace back in history, similar periods of great mining actiTity in still more remote times, it is rather through the want of historic records, than through the absence of any such activity in prehistoric ages, since the testimony of the very oldest monuments points to the general knowledge of the precious metals, as far back as the monumental history of man extends, and to the existence at these remote periods of centres of mining enterprise, having for their object the production of these metals.
Hence, while fully recognizing how various were the causes which gave rise to movements of peoples in the past, it is not unreasonable to see in some of them a certain element of mining enterprise, having for object the acquirement of mining districts and the working of the asefiil minerals or ores they might present ; and in order to secure that Old, the obtaining command of the countries where they were presumed or were known to exist, and as weU as of the routes of eommunication, with and from them, to the nearest and most advan- tageous markets. If, moreover, we read of colonizations or emigrations from countries where already great mining activity had become developed, and where men's energies had thereby acquired that ithnulus for adventure which the industry of mining tends to give rise to, it is reasonable to suppose that such colonization or emigration had for object, amongst other things, the search for' and acquirement of mining districts capable of furnishing a basis for the operations and bdustries of an active and intelligent community, possessed of a knowledge of the commerce of the useful metals and their accessories, and nrged, as it might be, by competition or allured by a favourable opportunity of securing an advantageous field for its energies and powers.
These general considerations seem to me to arise from the reading of the traditional accounts furnished us of the early colonies which came to Ireland, more particularly that of the Milesians.
Taking the traditional history of this invasion or colonization as given in O'Kelly's translation of M^Geoghegan's " History of Ireland (1844, cap. in., pp. 46-55), it may be noted that from the very commencement, traditions are mentioned connecting this country with Spain. Thus there is given the tradition of the three Spanish fisher- nen who were driven by contrary winds on the coast of Ireland, "some time before the deluge." The tradition that one of the Firbolg pinces, Eogha, married Tailta, '^ daughter of a Spanish prince," who gave name to the place of her burial, still called Tailtin in Meath."
38 Proceedings of the Royal IrvA Academy.
Speaking of the wanderings of the deficendanta of Feniaa Farsa, King of Scythia, '' from whom the Gadelians and MilemanB derived tkeir origin/' they are described as reaching Egypt nnder Nial, and in the third generation as being obliged to leare tlie oonntry under the conduct of Sur, " and after a few days sailing " to have landed on the Island of Crete ('* the cradle of the civilisation brou^t to Europe by the Phoenicians and Egyptians," the point of departure of the Tyrian Hercules for his expedition into Lybia and Iberia). Heber Scot, succeeding Sur in command, conducts the Gadelians from Crete to the river Tanais in Scythia, '' the country of their ancestors," "where his colony settled for some time " (the town of Tanais was a flourish- ing colony of the Milesians). A persecution, however, was raised through jealousy of the Scythians against them, and they were compelled to take refuge among the Amazons, having Adnoin for their chief. After sojourning there for some time, they departed under the conduct of Lamphion, son of Adnoin, for the country called in their language, " Goethluigne," supposed by O'Flaherty to be Gstulia in Africa. They remained in that country during eight genera- tions under the command of eight chiefs, of whom the last was Bratha. " By Bratha they were led into Spain, inhabited at that time by the descendants of Tubal, son of Japhet (that is by a people skilled in metallurgy). These new comers under the command of Breogan, son of Bratha, made war with success against the old inhabitants, and became masters of the northern provinces, where Breogan built a city which he called Brigantia or Braganza, after his own name."
The narrative gives then the descent from Breogan, of Gallamb, otherwise Mileag Espain, in Latin Milesius, "the ancestor of tbe Milesians or ancient Irish," and after him they were called Clanna Mileag or Milesians. He became in his turn chief of the colony of the Gadelians. His return to Scythia and adventures there are recounted, as also his subsequent departure therefrom. He embarked with his two children and little troop of faithful Gadelians for Egypt. He there served Pharaoh as general, and married his daughter Scota, by whom he had two sons. " During his residence in that country he caused twelve young men of his suite to be instructed in the different arts and sciences then in use, in order that they might, on their return to Spain, instruct their countrymen in the same." Milesius, thinking it time to put an end to his labours and join once more his relatives and friends in Spain, after a residence of seven years in Egypt, took leave of tlie king and all his court to return with the princess, his wife, his children and attendants. The voyage to Spain and attendant
O'Bbilly — Milesian Colonization relative to Oold-miuing, 39
inddents are then mentioiied : — " The family of Breogan, of which that of Milesins, king of Galicia, his grandson, formed the most con- siderate branch, was become numerous. A drought of several years, followed by a want of grain and of all kinds of provision having caused a famine, ruined and compelled them to seek a remedy for so pressing an evil. All the chiefs of the tribes assembled at Braganza to deliberate on what should be done. The result of the conference was to abandon their settlement in Spain and seek for one in some other country, particularly as Caicer, the Druid, a famous prophet among them, had foretold long before that their descendants should be possessed of the most westerly island in Europe." But as it was of importance to learn where that island lay before they should bring the whole of the colony thither, the assembly entrusted the discovery of it to iAy, otherwise Ith^ son of Breogan, and uncle of Milesius, a man of prudence and consummate experience. Ith, having accepted the commission, equipped a vessel, and taking 150 soldiers on board, besides rowers and sailors, he set out with Lugath, his son, to make the discovery to which he had been appointed. On his arrival in the north of the island he offered sacrifices to Neptune and inquired from the inhabitants what was the name of the country, aod other particulars.
It is quite true that in this narrative there is no mention whatever of mining or metals, nor indeed of the occupations or mode of living of these adventurers, and yet they must have followed some calling or occupation which would have ensured them a means of living and trarelling. Judging, however, from the extent of their wanderings, by the fact of these being mainly by sea, and lastly that they reached the north-western point of Spain, the circumstances are taken as pointing to their having been a body or tribe of adventurers, such as then existed, ready for war and capable of rendering service in maritime expeditions, either for commerce or for the piracies, so characteristic of the seafaring life of the period, and acquainted with the research and metallurgy of the precious metals. It would be easy to parallel their wanderings, from what is known of the travels of groups of mining explorers at the present time in search of gold or other profitable ore.
The determining reaBon assigned for their emigration from Spain is the extraordinary drought and consequent famine that then afflicted that country. The occurrence of this great and prolonged drought in Spain is mentioned by several Spanish historians, and the following is a translation of an extract relative thereto, taken from an old Spanish
40 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
work entitled " Libre de las Grandezas de Tarragona," bj Micer Luys Pons de Yeart, printed at Lerida, 1572, p. 80. cap. i. : —
'' Concerning the great drought of Spain and also of the first ruin of Tarragona, and of the peoples that thereafter penetrated into Spain. The first (destruction of Tarragona) happened at the time of this great drought, which lasted for a period of twenty-six years, during^ which no rain fell. In consequence the country became depopulated, since not only did the springs dry up but also the rivers, the wells, the trees, and the vegetation of the earth. This opened and became crevassed to an extreme degree ; at the same time great winds reigned, so that the trees, already become dry, were, some broken, the others torn from the ground. And such was the extent of this great drought that in all Spain there was not to be found a green tree except on the borders of the Ebro and Guadalquiver, where were to be found some olive trees and pomegranates, since, as a matter of fact, these two rivers did not entirely dry up, having their sources in very cold mountain, according to the remark of Pedro Beuter in the first part of his * Chronicle of Valencia,' cap. vii., 'Concerning the drought which happened in Spain.' This author says that the event took place in the year 1260 (mccl.) after the deluge (b.c, 1152)."
Pedro Medina, in his book on ** The Greatness of Spain," cap. vm., says that **it happened 1332 (mccc. xxxn.) years after the great deluge, and B.C. 1070. Florian de Campo, in the second book of his Chronicles, cap. IT., says that it happened B.C. 1030. Although the historians differ as to the date of this event they are agreed on the fact of the occurrence of this great drought, of which also Diego de Valeca makes mention in the second part of his work, cap. v. It happened, there- fore, in consequence of this great drought, that Spain became de- populated to such an extent that the inhabitants went away to inhabit the bordering or neighbouring provinces, where they remained until the bad time had passed. And according to some the poor people were saved and the rich perished, because the poor, not having wherewithal! to live, emigrated the first and were thus saved, whilst the rich, having goods in store, lived on from day to day in the expectation that the times would become better, and so long did they tarry before leaving that when finally they wished to go also they were unable to do so for want of means of living, so that they perished on the highways for want of water, as also by reason of the difficulties presented by the ground, all crevassed and gasping as it was, in consequence of the great drought, and in this way the greater part of the rich and of the nobles of Spain perished, whilst the common people were saved.
O'Beilly — Mile»an Colonization relfiHve to OoM-mining, 41
hsring gone away in good time. PoUowing on this drought it rained wi&ont interraption during three years, without cessation as it were, and a great many came to inhabit the country again."
" And Pedro Medina, in the cap. ix. of his work, gives a detail of the foreigners, who at different periods came into Spain, as also doea Jarafa on p. 33 and 9q, of his work. Florian de Campo, in the 2nd Book, cap. n. and m. of his work, and Alphonso de Cartagena, in his work entitled, ' Anacephaleosis Regum,' cap. y., describes the arrival in Spain of the Lydians, the Thracians, the Ehodians, and Milesians, the Carians, and Lesbians, Phoceans, and many Greeks and Cartha- g^ans."
A drought of the intensity and duration such as that referred to here, would imply great consequent social perturbations, not merely as regards Spain, but also as regards neighbouring countries, since the meteorological and physical causes to which such a drought could be attributed, must have affected more or less the countries which border the Mediterranean Sea, Gaul, Italy, Greece, Syria, Northern Africa, and the Islands of the Mediterranean. Hence, any history or record of those times which has come down to us, concerning the countries mentioned, should, if the drought really took place, to the extent described, acquaint us with great migrations and emigrations of tribes and peoples, from the waterless, and therefore famine-stricken, districts to the river valleys, which continued to carry water, and, therefore, to offer satisfactory conditions for life. The authority cited mentions in Spain, as such, the valleys of the Ebro and Guadalquiver, because of their sources being situated in snow-clad mountains; this condition would have characterised equally certain of the rivers of the northern part of Spain and Graul, having their sources in the highest points of the Pyrenees. Hence it might be assumed, that the valleys of the Tagus, Deuro, and Minho, and those of the Asturios and Galicia wonld have afforded shelter and favourable conditions of life to emigrants from the central plateau. As these privileged districts became crowded, emigration would have carried away the later craners to other countries more favourably circumstanced, such as the Valley of the Ehone, or of the Nile so exceptionally favoured by nature, so that historical data from any other sources failing us for those early dates, it is to the records of Egypt that we should turn to look for some indications which might be taken as the consequences of this drought, if it really occurred about the period mentioned, that is, iram about B.C. 1152, to about b.c. 1030. Citing from the article on Egypt "in the British Encyclopedia (1877)," we find the following dates
42
Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy,
given for the commencements of the XlXth, XXth, XXIst, XXTTndy Dynasties (the corresponding dates given by Bnigsch being here added).
|
Century. |
Mariette. |
LepnuB. |
Bnigsch. |
|
XlXth, |
1462 B.C. |
1443 B.C. |
1400 B.C. |
|
XXth, |
1288 „ |
1269 ., |
1200 „ |
|
XXIst, |
1110 „ |
1091 „ |
1100 „ |
|
XXIInd, |
•80 .. |
961 „ |
966 „ |
At page 739 it is stated — " Before the death of Seteel. {eire. 1366, B.C.), the maritime nations of the Mediterranean made a descent on Egypt. The Shardanes or Sardones, and the Tuerscha or Tyrseni being allied with the Lybians in this enterprise."
Circ. 1333 B.C. — Eamses II. defeated them so effectually that they do not seem to have again attacked Egypt till the reign of his son Meneptah, about 70 years or more subsequently.
Circ, 1300 B.C. — Meneptah Bucceeded Ramses II. ; there are but few monuments of hie reign. The principal event that they date is a great incursion into the Delta of the maritime nations of the Mediterranean, allied with the Lybians. By this time the Pelasgic tribes had wrested the dominion of the sea from the PhcenicianB. ** SofM cause^ perhaps famines^ had already disposed them to move from Asia Minor and the Greek Islands, seeking new settlements in Hgypt^ The attempt that Eamses II. defeated in the lifetime of Seti I. was now renewed, apparently on a more formidable scale. They had already entered Egypt and spread themselves over the W. of the Delta where they intended to settle, when the Egyptian forces attacked them and put them to rout after a battle of six hours' duration.
Citing from Brugsch's " Under the Pharaohs" (1891), p. 243, it is «tated, **The Wars of Seti {circ, b.c. 1366), arose from the constant advance of neighbouring peoples upon the Delta, p. 249. Seti carried his wars to the W. ; in particular against the Lybian tribes, who now appear for the fvrst time in the Egyptian monuments. The double plume on the crown of the head, and the side locks of hair, mark in the most striking manner these races, which the inscriptionB designate
O'BsiLLT — Milesian Colonization relative to Oold-miniHg. 43
bj the nmne of ' Thvhi,' ' Thuhm,' or ' Tkuheni,* i.e., < the light &r fair people.^ ^*
Page 255. — ''The abnndant tribute and taxes which tmder Thati-mes III. were yearly contributed by the conquered nations, and hia own subjects, seem from the reign of Seti to have flowed in less ▼igoronsly, whilst the wants of the kings were the same, and the erection of costly buildings required a certain expenditure. New eouroes must needs therefore be opened for the required means. So the king began to devote special care to the regular working of the gold mines in Egypt and Nubia, and to the formation of wells in the midst of the parched mountain regions, from which the gold was to be won. Therefore, everything was done to carry on the gold washings with success. The people who followed this laborious occupation were placed under the superintendence of a ' her-pit ' or * (^eruer of the foreign people.^ "
Page 258. — Chap, xn., xix.. Dynasty, Ramses II., eirc. b.c. 1333. This is the king who above all others bears the name of A-nektu, or " the Conqueror,^* and whom the monuments and papyri often designate by his popular names of See, Seeteeu, Seteeu, or Seetura, that is the Sesthosis, who is called Bamesses by Manetho ; the Sesostris of the Greeks.
Page 262. — ^An inscription of his says, "I dedicate to thee, ships with their freight on the great sea, which should bring to thee (the ▼onderful productions) of tiie holy land." ** The merchants carry on their commerce with their wares, and their productions of gold, and alver, and bronze."
Page 264. — In the 5th year of the king's reign a great war broke out between Egypt and ^* peoples from the extreme end of the eea to the lend of the Keta " {cire. b.c. 1328).
Page 287. — In order to increase his revenues, Eamses turned his attention to the gold districts, and especially to the Nubian mines of Akita, the modem Wady-Ollaqui.
Page 292. — So early as the Xlth Dynasty, we find traces of borings for water in the waste valleys of Hammamat, 1200 years before the accession of Bamses II. Sank-ka-Ba, one of his ancestors, had made four wells on the old road from Coptos to Kossir, the remains of which aie ffill to be seen.
Page 307. — ^Bamses reigned 67 years, p. 309 ; his fourteenth son, named Heneptah, was his successor.
Page 311. — Meneptah II. commences his reign {cire, b.c. 1266).
Page 313. — ^The inscription of this king as to the advance of the
44 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy,
foreigners into the Delta, says, " They have already advanced into the fields of Egypt, from the boundary of the river onwards. They have gained a firm footing, and spent days and months therein. [They have] settled themselves [near the towns]. It was a privilege ever since the kings of upper Egypt, on the grounds of the historical records of other times. But no one knows [that they ever came in large numbers] like vermin. They have come to Hgypt to seek sustenance for their mouths, ^^
Page 314. — " Then the mercenaries of his Majesty took what he had left of his property, his money which he had gathered in, his silver^ his gold, his vessels ofiron^
Page 315. — Thou wilt be the man who will undertake it, by giving^ orders to kill [the rebels among the inhabitants] in the land of the Tamahu [of the Libu].
Circ, B.C. 1261. ** Such was the great battle of Prosopis, which took place in the 5th year of the reign of Meneptah. With the Lybians, who were held in contempt by the Egyptians as uncircum- cised, were joined mercenary troops of the Caucaso-Colehian race, who in these times had migrated into their country and rendered miliary service, partly in £gypt and partly in Lyhia^
Page 316. — The whole coast beyond, as far as Cyrene, appears to have been a gathering ground of warlike adventurers of the Colchio- Cretan tribes, up to the Dardani, whose name is again reflected in the Greek designation of the town Dardanis.
Page 321. — TJser-Kha-Ra-8olep-en-Ra = Set-nekht {circ, b.c. 1233). All that we are able to say of him can be condensed into a few words : he was the father of a great king, and he lived in times full of dis- turbance and trouble.
Page 322. — I^or was it only against native claimants of the throne that this prince had to wage war, foreigners also contributed to turn Egypt upside down. The people of Egypt lived in banishment abroad. ** The land of Egypt belonged to princes from foreign parts. They slew one another, whether noble or mean. Other times came after- wards during years of scarcity."
Page 325. — XXth Dynasty, Bamessu-Haq-on = Bamses III. {circ, B.C. 1 200). The miserable state of Egypt before his accession could not be better described than in his own words, cited in the last chapter. He was next occupied with wars against foreign nations.
Page 326. — I^ations who had invaded the borders of Egypt. A war was next kindled by the Lybians and Maxyes, who, as before, under Meneptah II., made an inroad into the Delta, and occupied the whole
O'Bbillt — Milesian Colonization relative to Ghld-mining, 45
country along the left bank of the Oanopic Branch of the Nile, from yemphia, as far as Carbana (Canopns).
Page 827. — No less important was the despatch of a mission by land to Hie copper mines of Aketa ; '* and the metal shining like gold, and in the foim of bricks, was brought from the smelting-houses in those parte."
Bamses III. must ha/oe enjoyed enormous toeaUh, which he lavished <m the temples of Amon, Ptah, and Ba, of Heliopolis. When he came to the throne, things looked bad for Egypt. ^' The hostile Asiatics and Tnhennn robbers (the Lybian Maimaridae) showed themselves only to injure the state of Egypt."
Page 329. — ^In the 5th year of his reign, the enemies prepared a fresh attack from the west (eire. B.C. 1195). ''The people of the TamsBha assembled together in one place ; the tribe of the Mazyes loepaied themselyee for a raid out of their ovni country." (The Mazyes were a Lybian tribe, and a branch of the nomad Ausenses.) Herodotus places them on the left bank (the western) of the river Tiiton; reclaimed from nomad life, they were tillers of the earth, and accustomed to live in houses. They still, however, retained some relics of their former customs, as '' they suffer the hair on the right side of their head to grow, but shave the left ; they painted their bodies vith red lead " ; remains of this custom of wearing the hair are etiU preserved among the '' Tuaregs," their modem descendants. — (Smith's "Diet of An. Geo.," vol. ii., p. 299). The defeat of the enemy was tremendous. Three years after this event, a warlike move- ment broke out in the north, caused hy ike migration of the Cmian and CottKian tribes, '' They (the invaders) came up, leaping from their coasts and islands, and spread themselves all at once over the lands."
In the 11th year of Bhampsinitus, a new struggle threatened the safety of the country from the west.
Siumning up those citations from the Egjrptian inscriptions and history, as regards dates, we £nd : —
Ore. B.a 1366. Descent of the maritime nations of the Mediter- ranean into Egypt, ^^from the extremest end of the sea, to the land of the Kite " — defeated by Bamses II.
Ore, B.C. 1330. Great incursion of the maritime nations of the Mediterranean into the Delta, in alliance with the Lybians, under Meneptah. *' Some causes, perhaps famines, had already disposed them to vmefrom Asia Minor and the Greek IslandsJ*^
Circ. B.C. 1295 (under Meneptah II.). Further invasion of the Delta by the maritime nations of the Mediterranean. Battle of
46 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
Frosopis and defeat of the myaden in the 5th year of the reign of Meneptah II.
Cire, B.C. 1266. Meneptah II. repels the invasion of the foreigner8, who had come into Egypt *' to seek sustenance for their mouths^
Cire, B.C. 1233. Set-nekht, lived in times of disturbance and troubles — troubles in Egypt caused by foreigners. "The land of Egypt belonged to princes from foreign parts."
Cire. B.C. 1200. Bame66U-Haq.-0n = Bamses III., occupied with wars against foreign nations who had invaded the borders of Egypt.
It would thus appear that from about b.c. 1360 (Seti I.), to the end of the reign of Bamses III. {cire. b.c. 1166), repeated invasions of the Delta took place by the maritime nations of the Mediterranean and their allies, consequent on famine, at least in one case (Meneptah II.), and foreigners established themselves therein, almost to the exclusion of the Egyptians. As regards the nations and tribes mentioned in the inscriptions as having come from the extreme western shores of the Mediterranean, certain of these may have been from the Spanish side, even from the basins of the rivers which had been dried up ; possibly from the western coast of Spain. The Egyptian records of the period mentioned support, therefore, to some extent the traditions relative to the occurrence of great and prolonged drought in Spain having caused an immense emigration from that country to others not so affected, such as the Valley of the Nile ; the date of that event may have been as late as 1166 b.c (Pedro Beuter), but the probability is, that it took place somewhere in or about the twelfth century b.c Considerations of another order would lead to the acceptance of this date for the Spanish drought and consequent famine and emigrations (bearing in mind that the causes of the drought operated over a much wider extent of land than Spain alone). Thus the dates relative to the Etruscan emigration would seem to bear upon this point, and are, consequently, worthy of citation. In the article on ^^ Mruria^^ ("Br. Encyclo- pedia," 1878) it is stated, p. 637 — " Next to years they cotinted br Bsecula, each representing the longest life of the time, and reaching in some cases to 123 years ; but with an average apparently of 100. The Etrurian nation was to endure ten saeculse. The beginning of the tenth was enounced in the year 44 b.c, p. 639. It appears from a statement of Varro, quoted by Censorius (DeDie Natali XVII., 5 fol.), that Etruscan history was divided into ten periods, or seculae ; and it is known otherwise that the tenth of these began in the year 44 b.c The four first ssecula are given as having lasted each 100 years; the fifth, 123 years; the sixth, 119 years; and, allowing for the eighth
O'Bkllt— itfitown Colonisation relative to Qold-mining, 47
and ninth each an average of 120, we obtain the year 1044 b.c. as the beginning of Etruscan chronology — a date which curiously corresponds fcith that usually assigned to those great movements of races in Greece with which the Etruscan traditions were associated. The really impor- tant point, howerer, in these figures, as Helbig (' Annali deU. Instit. irch.,' 1876, p. 230) has lately shown, is the circumstance that the first four periods are given in round numbers, and thus justify the inference that the keeping of regular records had not begun until the fifth period, commencing b.c. 644."
On the other hand, in Burton's ''Etruscan Bologna" (London, 1876), p. 173, the author says : — " They (the Etruscans) are generally believed to have first founded the Tyrrhenian Federation of tiie west, ^Etruria Mad/re^ and to have crossed the Apennines, and occupied the drcumpadan regions, ' Etrwria nova,* as far as the Alps (Herod. Clio. 94), and lastly, *Etruria Campania^ or Orpicia, in the twelfth, or perhaps the thirteenth, century b.c. This would be about the date of the Trojan War (popularly b.c. 1184) (Note)— Niebuhr (I. 138), also carries back the first Etruscan Sseculum to b.c. 1188, or 434 years A.r.c."
The citations already given from Egyptian history and inscriptions, not merely aJSord evidence of invasions by foreign tribes and people under the pressure of famine, which in the latitudes of the Mediter- ranean would mainly result from severe droughts (as in India at present), but also furnish proofs of the activity and extent of the commercial navigation of the times considered, thus Bamses II. says in an inscription : —
" I dedicate to thee, ships with their freight on the great sea," '* The merchants carry on their commerce with their wares, and their productions of gold and silver and bronze."
They further furnish proofs of the great stimulus given by the vast enterprises of the Pharaohs, to the quest and production of the precious metals, and of copper and iron. They show us how the mining works were conducted under the superintendence of a '^ her- pit" or " overseer of the foreign people." Lastly, they show us that the Delta and its ports were the great emporiums for the commerce of east and west, and that bands of adventurers settled in the Delta coming from Colchis, from the Caucasus and from Crete, and suggest to a certain point a parallel between them and the Milesian colony, who are mentioned as starting from the district of the Tanais in Sejthia as having been in Crete, as having served in Egypt, and as having spent some time in Gstulia (?) and with the Amazons.
48 Proceedintjs of the Royal Irish Academy.
Assuming for fhe moment that these inhabited the present western part of Marooco (as has been argaed), it is to be noted that remains of cities, and of mining irorks of a very high antiquity are mentioned as existing there, and as awaiting the researches of ardueologists. In so for as the expeditions of the Milesians took place by sea, they inyolved the use of shipping ; and it is reasonable, if not necessary, to admit that they were effected by means of the commercial yessels of the period, whose commanders had a knowledge of the navigation of the coasts and ports, to which the emigrants wished to go, or could be advantageously transported to. Now it seems admitted, that while the Pelasgians, the Bhodians, and the Tyrrhenians disputed with the Phoenicians the maritime supremacy of the Mediterranean, it wss otherwise as regards the coasts of Spain, outside the pillars of Hercules. There the Phoenicians reigned supreme, so &r as is known to us, and hence it may be infeired that the expedition of the Milesians into Spain was in some way connected with the trading euterprise of the Phoenicians. Hence, it is of interest to show to what extent they dominated as navigators and merchants. Now, in the excellent article on " Phoenicia," in " Chambers' Encyclopedia" (1865), it is stated: —
" In the space of three centuries (1800 to 1000 b.c.) the Phoeni- cians had covered all the islands and coasts of the Mediterranean with their forts, their factories, and their cities ; and their ships, which ploughed the main in all directions everywhere, found their own ports. To the east of the ^gean, we find them at Erythroe, and further, as masters of the islands of Samothrace, Lemnos, and Thasos, with its wealth of goldmines. From Sardinia and Minorca the indefatigable mariners went still further west, through the Straits of Gibraltar to Tarshish (the California of those days) or Spain, where they founded Craddir or Cadiz ; and in the south, Earteja, Malaka, and Abdarah. From here, having colonized weU nigh the whole of the Spanish coast, they went northwards to the Tin Islands (SciUy Islands), and to Britain herself. The impulse given to industry and the arts by this almost xmparalleled extension of their commercial sphere was enor- mous. The wealth of silver, iron, tin, and lead was chiefly got from Tartessus. The description of the abundance of precious metals there verges on the fabulous. Their mining operations in the Lebanon and Cyprus, where they dug for copper ; in Thasos, where, according to Herodotus, they overturned a whole mountain in search of gold, but more particularly in Iberia, where at first silver was so abundant, 4hat hardly any labour was required to obtain it, were stupaudoua ;
O'Heilly — MilMian Colontzaiion relative to Oold-mining. 49
and the minute description of the mining process contained in Job (cap. xmii., 1-11) has probably been derived from a sight oi Phoeni- cian mining works. Their architecture seems to haye been of a Cyclopean character." In the article "Ship,"' it is stated: — "The Phoenicians, at an early date, constructed merchant vessels capable of carrying cargoes, and of traversing the length and breadth of the Meditemnean, perhaps even of trading to the far Gassiteiides, and of the circunmavigating Africa."
In the article from " Chambers' Encyclopedia," already cited, it is stated : — " The internal arrangement of their vessels vras perfect, and excited the wonder and admiration of the Greeks, by their being so splendidly adapted at once for navigation, freight, and defence."
In the article on "Phoenicia,"' it is said: — "The beginnings of naTigation lie beyond all human memory, but it is not hard to under- stand how the ancients made this also an invention of the PhoenicianSy whose skill as seamen was never matched by any ancient people, before or after them. Even in later times, Greek observers noted ▼ith admiration the exact order kept on board Phoenician ships, the skill with which every comer of space was utilized, the careful disposi- tion of the cargo, the vigilance of the steersmen and their mates.* They steered by the polar star, which the Greeks, therefore, called the fhoenician star, and all their vessels from the common round 'gaulos' (or galley) to the great Tarshish ships of the ancient world had a speed which the Greeks never rivalled. It was they, in fact, who from the earliest times, distributed to the rest of the world the wares of Egypt and Babylon.^ The great centre of Phoenician colonization was the western half of the Mediterranean, and the Atlantic coasts to the right and left of the straits. In especial the trade with Tarshish, that is the region of the Tartessus (Guadalquiver), was what made the commercial greatness of the Phoenicians. 'Next the Phoenicians ventured further on the ocean, and drew tin from the mines of north-west Spain, or the richer deposits of Cornwall. The rich tnuie with Spain led to the colonization of the west. The trading comiexions of the Phoenicians reached far beyond their most remote colonies."
Bawlinson in his " Phoenicia " (1890) states, p. 9 : — " From a date which cannot be placed later than the twelfth century B.C., the carrying trade of the world belonged mainly to Phoenicia, which <:>OQimunicated by land with the Persian Gulf, the Euphrates, Armenia,
* •* Encyclop. Br." (1886), p. 806. » Xen. Mc via. II & »q.
» IHd. (1886). * " Herodotiifl, ib:*
K.T.A. PBOC., 8EB. HI., VOL. VI. K
50 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
Cappadocia, and Anatolia, and by sea with Egypt, Greece, Italy, North Africa, Gaul, and Spain."
Page 22. — ** It is at any rate certain that for a thousand years, from the fourteenth century to the fourth century b.c, a great and remarkable nation, separate from all others, with striking and peculiar characteristics, occupied the region in question, drew upon itself the eyes of the whole civilized world, and played a most important part in histoiy ; while almost the whole world made acquaintance with its hardy mariners, who explored almost all seas, visited almost all shores — the people who first discovered the British Isles, and made them known to mankind at large ; the people who circumnavigated Africa, and caused the gold of Ophir to flow into the coffers of Solomon."
The wanderings of the Milesians in the Mediterranean prior to their arrival in I^orth Western Spain, may indeed have been effected by the aid of any one of the maritime nations of that sea ; but their coming into Spain, and more particularly their settlement in the N.W. comer of that country, would, from the citations made, almost imply the intervention of the Phoenicians, since the trade and navigation outside the Straits is stated to have been entirely in their hands, more particidarly as regards the precious metals. Hence it would not be unreasonable to consider the Milesian adventurers as working in conjunction with the Phoenician merchants and navigators, acting as colonists or explorers, and able to turn to advantage mining discoveries. It must at an early date have become known to the Phoenicians through their trade communications along the W. coast of the Peninsula, that the Tagus carried gold in its sands, and probably Lisbon, as it then existed, was a trading station for them in that respect. In the same manner, they woidd have become acquainted with the fact of the Deuro, also being auriferous, and would have explored the valley of the Minho, and more particularly its upper waters, the Sil and all its embranchments, and thus would have acquired a knowledge of the remarkable gold district of the Sil. IS^ow it was at the gates, one might say, of this auriferous country, almost the only one in Spain, that the Milesian Colony is described as having been settled, after a contest with the natives. Bearing in mind that this part of the Peninsula was then inhabited by Celtic tribes, as also the experience the Phoenicians had acquired in the working of the gold mines of Thasos, and their noted intelligence as miners, it is easy to conceive that an opportunity was presented to them of establishing productive gold washings in the district in question. The ore was
O'Beillt — Milesian Colonization relative to Qold-mining. 51
abimclant, there was plenty of water for its treatment, with abundance of timber, and most favourable climatic conditions.
In lardner's Cabinet Cyclopedia " History of Spain and Portugal," ▼ol. I., the foUowing statements are made which bear on this subject : —
Page 7. — ^' There is reason to believe that the Celtiberian nations were not unacquainted with commerce, even before the invasion of the Pluenicians. But their trade was confined to the coast. Prom this period (the arrival of the Phoenicians) the riches of Spain were almost proverbial, coins and medals of ancient date, some representing the religious rites, or ordinary pursuits of the people, others covered with Phffinician characters, are frequently dug up. But iron was the ndnend for which the country was most renowned. When turned into steel, the excellence of the workmanship made foreigners anxious to obtain them (f.*. the Celtiberian weapons)."
Page 15. — ''The Callaici, or Gallicians, possessed the sea coast L-etween the Asturias and Lusitania, From the most ancient times, as at present, their maritime superiority over all other nations of Spain ia beyond dispute. The abundance of fish on their coasts, and the fertiHty of their soil, attracted the Phoenician and Carthaginian ir^Tichants to their ports. Besides they had numerous mines of the pi'cioas metals and tin. Gold, we are told, was so common, that the Ijliourers in the field frequently dug up ingots several ounces in u eight This is exaggerated, but there can be no doubt that the nuneswere highly productive."
Page 16. — "Bespecting the Turdetani, Strabo has some precious infommtion. He says that they were the most learned tribe of all Spain, that tbey had reduced their language to grammatical rules, that for 6000 years they had possessed metrical poems, and even laws (StiEbo, lib. xa.). The Turdetani seem to have inhabited a portion of Lontania as ^ell as Boetica."
Page 21. — "The precise period of their (the Phoenicians) entering into relations with the inhabitants is unknown ; doubtless it was Wore the foundation of either Carthage or Kome." l^ote on this : — ''Jfasden (a Spanish historian, 1740-1817), gives the chronology, Teiy satisfactory for himself " thus : —
hi the XXth century b.c, The Phoenicians ventured as far as
Egypt. „ XlXth „ „ They virated Argos.
„ XVIIth „ „ They had good ports and arsenals.
„ XVlth „ „ They first appeared on the coast of
Spain,
X 2
52 Fi'oceedinga of the Royal Irish Academy.
lu the XYth century b.c., The PhoBnidanB colonized Cadiz.
„ Xllth „ „ They constructed the famous fleet
which aided Semiramis in the iuTasion of India.
,, Xlth „ „ They taught navigation to the Jews.
„ Vllth „ „ They sailed round the whole continent
of Africa, from the Arahian Sea to the Cape of Good Hope, and thenoe to the pillars of Hercules.
** For some time, their settlements, of which Gades, now Cadiz, ' the first and most powerful, were confined to the coast of Bcetica, whence they supply the natives with the traffic of Asia Minor, and the shores of the Mediterranean in exchange for the more valuable productions of the Peninsula, such as gold, silver, and iron. Coins, medals, and ruins, attesting their continued location, have been found in most provinces of Spain, and even at Pamplona in Navarre."
Too much insistance cannot be made on the predominance of the Phcenicians as regards navigation, trade, and the arts, not only in the Mediterranean, but more particularly outside the Straits and along the *W. coast of the Peninsula, during those early centuries. They were admittedly the great explorers, conveyors, and instructors of those times, and whatever they have left us of historical record cannot be too carefully sifted. As bearing, therefore, on the probable nature of the Milesian expedition, it is desirable to examine what is known of the colonies or cities which the Phoenicians are said to have founded. as regards their antiquity and the dates which have been, or may be assigned to them, taking for granted that they had acquired a knowledge of the trading advantages presented hy the coast long before they actually founded their cities and ports. Cadiz is one of the most renowned of these, and in the article thereon in the Br. Encydo- poedia (1976), it is stated: — '* Cadiz, in Latin Gadei, and formerly called ' Cales* by the English, is identical with the ancient Agadir, Oadir, or Gaddir (in Greek Gadura), which was a flourishing Phoenician colony, long before the beginning of the classical history. Some remains of the ancient city, and particularly of the Temple of Hercules, arc said to be visible below the sea."
The London Encyclopaedia (1829) states as regards these remains : "The earthquake of 1755 caused the sea when it retired, to leave behind it wrecks which appeared to have belonged to a temple. A tradition that the ancient city of Cadiz was once swallowed up by au
O'Beilly — Milesian Cohnizaiion relative to Ghld-mining. 53
Mrthquake appears thuB to be confirmed. It is certaiTi that the sea without the Straits of Gibraltar, has encroached on the land. It is said that in Tery calm weather when the tide is low, the mins of the old bonses and the remains of the Temple of Hercnles may sometimes be discoTered nnder the water."
Chambers' Encyclopeedia (1888) says of it: ''Cadiz, one of the most ancient towns in Europe, having been built by the Phoenicians mider the name of Gaddir r= ' fortress ') about 1 100 b.c."
The excellent article in Smith's " Dictionary of Ancient Geo- graphy" says " it was the chief Phoenician colony outside the pillars of Hercules, haying been established by them long before the beginning of classical history. To the Greeks and Romans it was long the westernmost point of the known world ; and the island on which it stood (Isla de Leon) was identified with that of Erytheia, where King Geryon fed the oxen which were carried off by Hercules — or, according to some, Erytheia was near Gadeira."
Page 924. — " There are extant coins of the old Phoemcian period as well as of the Eoman city ; the former are, with one exception, of copper, and generally bear the head of the Tyrian Hercules (Melcarth) on the reverse, one or two fishes, with a Phoenician epigraph in two lines, of which the upper has not been satisfactorily explained, while the lower consists of four letters which answer to the Hebrew characters for Agadir or Hagadir^ that is the genuine Phoenician form of the city's name, with the prosthetic breathing or article, the ondssion of which gives Qadir^ the form recognized by the Greek and Boman writers."
Professor George Rawlinson, in his "Phoenicia" (1890), (" Story of the Nations "), gives (page 66), after Kenrick, a vivid description of the wealth of the "wide plains through which the Guadalquiver flows." " Gold, silver, quicksilver, tin, lead, copper, and iron abound in the mountains in which the JBoetis (Guadalquiver) and its tributaries rue.
Page 67. — "The ocean tides which enter the mouths of these rivers (Guadalquiver and Guadiana) carried ships far up into the land." The sea was equally productive with the land in the materials for an extensive commerce. "In this delightful region (says Prof. Rawlinson), at a very early date, soon after the Trojan War, accord- ing to Strabo, the Phoenicians founded the colonies of Gadura or Gades, whose name survives in the modem Cadiz, of Malaca (now '.Malaga), of Abdera (now Adra), and of Carteia (perhaps Rocadillo). Of the^e by far the most important was Gadeira."
64 Proceedings of the Boyal Irish Academy,
As regards the date of the Trojan War, the following may be cited from the article, "Trojan War" (Smith's "Cyclopaedia of Names," 1894). Duris placed the fall of Troy in 1335 b.g. ; the author of the "Life of Homer" in B.C. 1270; Herodotus in 1260 B.C.; Thucydides in B.C. 1260; the Parian Marbles in b.g. 1209; Eratosthenes in b.c. 1183; Sosibias in B.C. 1171; Ephorus in b.g. 1169; Clemens in b.c. 1149 (Eawlinson, Herod, ii. 223, note). According to Haydtn^s " Dictionary of Dates," Mr. Gladstone is cited as taking for the date of the war, b.c 1316-1307, while the "popular" date, or that usually received is mentioned as b.c 1183-84, for the fall of the city. Accepting Mr. Gladstone's date, as coming from a high classical authority, and as based on sound research, while allowing for the wide range of difference between the assigned dates, the founding or building of Cadiz may be taken as having occurred somewhere between 1200 and 1300 b.c, the place having, in all probability, for some time before that, been a factory or trading- station, and used for that purpose, as also for fishing by the native Celts. Starting with this, we may form some estimate as to the dates at which other colonies or cities were founded along the coast of Spain by the Phoenicians, and presuming that Cadiz was one of the earliest of these. Thus Lisbon, at the entrance of the Tagus, is said (according to the article in Chambers' Encyclopaedia, 1864) "to have been founded by the Phoenicians." The Encyclopaedia Britannica, 8th edition, says of it: — "The origin of Lisbon is lost in remote antiquity; but there are not wanting fables to carry back its foundation some thousands of years before the Christian era. Pliny states that its first inhabitants were a warlike tribe called * Turduh',* It passed successively into the hands of the Phoenicians, Greeks, Carthaginians, and Romans." Having regard to the great extent and excellence of the port, and the fact that it is the largest in Portugal, there is gi'ound for admitting that it was already a place of importance when the Phoenicians first visited it, and traded there for its gold amongst other wares ; since the sands of the Tagus have been worked from remote times for their gold, particularly at the entrance, on the strand now known as that of Sao Juliao da Barra, the profit has, however, become so slight that the washing has completely ceased (Diet, de Geo. Univ. V. de St. Martin).
The Deuro or Duero has already been mentioned as carrying gold in its sands ; and on its northern bank stands the city and port of Oporto (O'Porto).* " Small quantitities of tin and qmcksilver are extracted in the nci^rhbourhood."
* **l'IniycloiHBdia Brit.," 8th edition, p. 519.
O'Reilly — Milesian Colonization relative to Oold-mining, 65
The edition of 1884 says of it: — "The history of Oporto dates from an early period. Before the Roman invasion, under the name of Gaia or Cajfo, it was a town with a good trade."
TheEdiQbnrgh Encyclopedia (1830), says:— "To the westward, along the decHTity of the hill, are a number of detached houses forming the market town of Gajfa, a place remarkable both for its situation and name. Herein former times, a place called Cale, of which the ancients epeak, is said to have stood, but Oporto being afterwards built, or being more convenient for ships, from the greater depth of the water along the bank, it was called Portus Gale, or the harbour of Gale, whence was derived Portucdl, and at last Portugal; Portus Gale was at length called 0 Porto (the harbour), which name the town of Oporto afterwards received."
It may be remarked that the word " Cals *' in French is thus explained in Littre and Beaujean's "Diet, de la langue francaise'' (1883) : — " CaU, — ^Fond on partie la plus basse de Tinterieur d'un nairve ('se cacher d fond de cale'). La partie inclin6e d'un port pour le chargement d'un bateau. Plan inclin6 vers la mer servant a construer on & reparer des batements. Gale de constructioni."
In Littre, Ist edition (1863), gives as an example: " Een6 escoTte d'un detachement de soldats de marine, debarque d la cale du port " (Chateaubriand Natch n., 202). Anciennement Grique, abri, entre deux points de tcrre ou de rocher.
In O'Eeilly's Dictionary (Irish-English, 1877) is given :
p ^ |j s.m. a port, harbour, haven, ferry, inde Calais,
It would seem, therefore, that Cale as applied to Oporto anciently implied the existence there of a Geltic harbour, at the time of the arrival of the Phoenicians, and that the terms "j?or^o" and "(?fl^" were practically synonymous for harbour. The term " Cale " would to eome extent imply that vessels were in the habit of being built there, that is, that it was a port of construction, having supplies of timber and iron, &c., necessary for that purpose.
As regards the name " Oaia " or " Cat/o,'* it may be of interest to cite the etymology of the word " quai^* (French) given by Littr6 in his dictionary: — "Bas-latin, eaium^ *quai' dans une charte de Philippe Auguste ; espagnol, eat/oa = * ecueils ' ; portug., eaes = * quai ' ; hol- landaig, kaai] glose d'Isodore, yfetf» = *cancelli,' *barreaux' ; du celtique Kimry, kae = * hau,' * barri^re ' ; bas-breton, ka^= * haie et quay.' Les ^verses significationis, eaium, eayos^ and la glose d'Isodore se tiennent par un fil de significations, que I'on suit sans peine."
66 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
Is it not probable tbat the names Caia or Goya are simply older forms of the word ''Quai" or bas-latin Caium? and thus the three names Oporto, Cale, and Gaya stand in the same relation one to another as port, harboitr, and quay in English actually. It would further thus appear that a Celtic harbour existed at the mouth of the Deuro before the arrival of the Phoenicians, and was the cause of their extending their commercial relations along the coast. The rirer Mifio or Minho which separates the present Galicia from Portugal was the Minius of the Romans, and was said to have received its name from the " Minium " or " Vermillion " carried down by its waters, or according to other authorities, found in its bed (Justin xiv., 3). AfiTiiTiTn is a red oxide of lead, and Vermillion the sulphuret of mercury, both of which are so heavy of themselves, that they could hardly remain in suspension in the water of a river such as the Minho, unless under very extraordinary conditions, both as regards the rate of flow of the river, and as regards the quantities of these bodies existing at the sur&ice of the ground, or being produced by mining or metallurgical operations. It is very likely, therefore, that the red colour implied by the namo arose from the presence of red oxyde of iron in a fine state of division, which does actually colour many river waters, especially during their periods of flood. In Irish mian signifies a "mine or ore," and the Minho would be thus explainable as the river " carrying the ore," and this would perfectly describe it as regards its upper waters, particularly the river Sil, which is really the Minho in its upper waters, and the basin of which is the gold region already referred to.
According to Niebuhr (cited by Ulick R. Burke in his " History of Spain," vol. i., p. 3), "the heights in the North of Spain whence the Tagus, Duiius, and Minius flow towards the sea, and whence on the other side smaller rivers carry their waters towards the Ebro, were inhabited by Celts, who were also called Cdtiheriam^ other Celts bearing the name of Celtici^ dwelt in Algarbia and the Portuguese Estremadura, others again inhabited the province of Entro Douro e Minho, in the north of Portugal. These three Celtic nations were quite isolated in Spain. The Celtiberians were not pure Celts, but as tiieir name indicates, a mixture of Celts and Iberians ; but the Celts in Portugal are expressly stated to have been pure Celts (Niebuhr Lectures on " Ancient and Modem Geography and Ethnography," n., 280-281).
The fact of these three Celtic nations being isolated, as mentioned by Niebuhr, in Spain, would point to the inference that the Celts were the original inhabitants of the greater part of Spain, and had been split up and driven into the mountain districts by invading races.
O'Bbilly — Milesian Colonization relative to Oold-mining. o7
Galicia may therefore be assumed as having been occupied by Celts at the time of the arriyal of the Phoenicians on their coasts, and that the products exchanged with them were obtained by these Celts, bore therefore Celtic names, and finally that the ports and towns frequented by the Phoenicians in their time had names Celtic in their origin, though also possibly referable to a people still anterior to the Celts. Hence there is an interest to note these names as they occur, and particularly as regards Galicia in general and the valley of the Sil and its tributaries in particular.
PoUowing, then, the coastline northward of the Minho, that of Galicia presents characteristics which distinguish it from that lying to the south of that river. A series of bays called " rias " or fiords pre- sent themselves, amongst which are four of the finest harbours in Spain, Yigo, Pontevedra, Coruna, and Perrol. In the Br. Encyclo- pedia (edition of 1855), the following remarks are made regarding the province and its coastline, rivers, &c., p. 372 : —
"The coast of Ghdicia is everywhere bold, and may be safely approached by mariners. It is much more broken, however, than the coasts of Asturias and Biscay, being more exposed to the violent action of the strong currents of the Atlantic, which run in these latitudes at the rate of half a mile an hour. Hence many secure havens have been in the course of ages scooped out by the storms and currents, and its- deep inlets thus formed, with its lofty promontories, give this peculiar feature to this coast. Rivadeo, on the left bank of the Miranda, has a safe and capacious harbour, with three fathoms of water at ebb tide. Yivero Bay is one mile wide and runs three inland, affording good anchorage throughout, with from six to eight fathoms of water. Still further westward the bay of Stanques la Verre, or inlet of Barquero, on the east side of the punta de la Estaca, is an excellent harboiu*, three miles wide and six long, with anchorage in six fathoms. The harbour of Ferrol is said to be the best in Europe ; it is ten miles long and from a quarter to half a mile in breadth, with sufficient depth of water to allow the largest vessels to approach the town, which stands five miles from the entrance, and frigates may pass two miles further up. A long narrow peninsula separates the bays of Betanzos and of Ayres from the harbour of Perrol, opposite to which stands the port of Conina. The great bay which forms the common entrance to all these; inlets is the Poriu8 Magnu9 of the ancients. About one mile north of Coruna stands the famous lighthouse, called the Tower of Hercules, or the Iron Tower, which was repaired in 1788. It is 92 feet high, with waUs 4^ feet thick. The construction proves clearly that it was built
68 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
by the Romans, and an inscription discovered near its foundations informs us that it was built by Cauis Servius Lupus, architect to the town of Aqua Flavia^ and that it was dedicated to Mars. The principal port on the western coast of Galicia is the deep, capacious bay of Vigo, in which the largest vessels may ride securely one mile above the town. The climate is variable but temperate on the coast; forest trees abound on the hill slopes; the woods abound with game in great variety, while the rivers and indented shores teem with fish, especially trout, salmon, anchovies, tunny, lamprey, and the * hesugo,^ or * hog fish,' which has no bones and resembles the lamprey in the richness of its flavour."
The language of Galicia is a harsh, uncouth dialect, quite unin- telligible to Spaniards, who sneer at their use of u for o, and yet from it and the dialect of the Asturies the modem, elegant, and refined Castillian has sprung. These interesting keys to the origin of their language have never yet received the attention they deserve from the Spanish philologists.
Page 373. — Advancing northward, prismatic formations begin to appear as the outlines of the hills become bolder, and near Coruria lofty granitic ridges stretch as far as Cape]Ortegal These granites, which seem to be a continuation of those of Cornwall, contain an abundance of the common tin ore, the working of which is laborious and not very profitable to the Galicians, who are far behind in scientific and mechanical appliances. There are strong probabilites that the Phoenicians visited Galicia as well as Cornwall and the Cassiterides for this tin ore. In former times gold and silver were also among its mineral wealth, but at present lead, tin, and copper, which are found chiefly along the northern coast and along the banks of the Miiio, are the only riches of which the mines of Galicia can boast.
The most interesting of these fine harbours is Coruna, with its ancient tower of Hercules, already mentioned. In Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography it is stated to be identical with the ancient ** Brigantium " or Brigantia, " Some geographers identify it with El Perrol, others with Betanzos, others with La Coruna, identify- ing the ancient tower at this place with the great lighthouse of lirigantium, mentioned by Orosius."
Reclus, in the translation of his "University Geography," vol. i., p. 459, says of Coruna : — " On a small island near it stands the tower of Hercules, the foundations of which date back to the Romans, if not to the Phoenicians." 0*Shea, in his "Guide to Spain and Portugal" (1892), speaks of it as follows: — "La Coruiia, formerly called La
O'Eeilly — Milesian Colonization relative to Oold-minhig. 69
Cnrna (Corona), and 'Groyne' by the English, is said to have been founded by the Phoenicians. The Torre de Hercules, on the site of a Phcenician pharos, which rises one mile north-west of the town, was repaired by order of Trajan." It is worth noting that, as regards the name, the £nglish term " groyne," mentioned by O'Shea and others, is descriptiYe of the form of the harbour. Thus Wedgewood, in his '* Dictionary of English Etymology," p. 184, gives for ** groin": — 1, "Snout of a swine," and 2 (Metaphor), 0. Fr. "Groing," cape, promontory, tongue of land jutting out into the sea, hence English " groin," a wooden jetty built into the sea for the purpose of letting gravel accumulate against it for the defence of the coast. From the came source is the old name of " The Groyne," erroneously supposed to be a corruption of Coruna.
Now the form of the land which makes the port of Conma, represents such a projection or " groin," hence the name was probably intended to be descriptive, and as it may also have had a Celtic origin, it is worth noting that the dictionary of the Gaelic language (1828) gives the verb Grunnaichidh, **to sound the depth" ; **find the ground or bottom," in other words "to find soundings." Coruiia, or Cruna, or Gmna, would therefore have been the point of the great bay, where "soundings" could be advantageously found. In O^Reilly's Dictionary, *^ granaigham^^ is "to ground," "sound" (Sc), and ^^ grunni " is " the ground," bottom foundation. The derivation given by O'Shea (" Corona*^) offers no reason of itself, and is not accounted for by him. As regards Latin, a better etymology is offered by the word columna = a column (in reference to the Pharos), this by the re- placement of the / by r, common in Spanish derivatives, would become corumna = Corunna = Coruna. H. Gadow, " In Northern Spain^^ gives an example of the change in the case of the name, " Kuestra Seiiora de Cluniaca,^* corrupted into Crunego. The important point for the object of the present paper, is that La Coruna may be taken as corresponding to the ancient Brigantium, or Brigantia, said to have been founded by Breogan ; and that it is sufficiently ancient to be reputed to have been founded by the Phoenicians, while the fact of a Pharos having been erected there by them would point to its having heen a port of great importance for the navigation of these coasts and seas. As a position for commercial enterprise, it presents manifold advantages, above all its excellence as a harbour of safety, so that in the hands of a maritime nation or people, such as the Phoenicians, a very active trade could be continuously carried on from it, not only with the different ports of the western coast of the peninsula, but also
60 Proceedings of the Royal Ivinh Academy.
with those of the northern. Thus it would have been in connezioir with the copper and cobalt mines existing in the neighbouring province of Asturias, of which one of the most remarkable, archceologically, is and was that of '^ £1 Aiamo,*' a mountain, wherein some few years ago, extensive workings with important prehistoric remains were discovered.*
From Coruna, the Bay of Biscay could be surveyed, and acquaintance made during the fine seasons with the different ports existing along the north coast of Spain, and access thus obtained to the mines of zinc of the present province of Santander, and to the celebrated mines and forges of iron still worked in Biscay, and second to none in the world. That these mines were worked certainly by the Romans, and therefore probably by the Phoenicians, is attested by the discovery of ancient timbering, Boman coins, and lamps, &c., at Beocin (near Torrelavega), and at Comillas.' These advantages would soon have become known to the PhoBuicians in the course of their trading, and it is reasonable to suppose that they would have sought to take advantage of them by the introduction of colonies of peoples skilled in the arts of mining and metallurgy, wherever favourable. The " Milesian " colony may have presented these characters, and as it is stated in the tradition quoted, that Milesius had with him a number of young men who had learned the useful arts while in Egypt, such presumption is justified. Their headquarters would have been at Coruna, and from that point they could be in touch with the neighbouring valleys connected with the Sil, or with the ports along the north coast of the peninsula, wherein metals or ores could be had. In the neighbouring district of the Asturias, were, and still are to be found, deposits of amber and jet, matters which, of no high intrinsic value in modem times, seem to have been very highly priced in prehistoric and ancient times, as ornaments, and therefore serving for purposes of barter.
(.Vruiia is directly connected with the district already referred to aa the gold district of the provinces of Asturias and Leon, reference to which has already been made as having such an important bearing on the settlement of the Milesian colony in the north-west of Spain. This district has been frequently described in special journals, and in the Mining Jomnal for 1896, occur two or three articles which describe sufficiently fully these notable deposits, for the purposes of the present paper, and from which the following extracts are made : —
* See "Revestii Minera," tome xliv. 1893, p. 36. » Ibid., vol. XLii., 1899, p. 47.
O'Rkillt — Milesmn Colontzation relative to Gold^tnining. 61
** Mining in the Asturias, north Spain "> : — " Ths Auriferous zone 4tnd its ancient worhings.^^ Attention is called to the "large number •of ancient workings that exist in the quartzite belt that runs through the province from north to south, and the gold that is found in the clays and gravels of the river beds which run at the foot of these old attle heaps. These ancient workings extend over a district lying between 42° 25', and 44° 32' north latitude, and over 30' of longitude, or over an area of 1110 square miles. The best proof that they were prolific to their ancient workers is the long aqueduct surmounting all difficulties, carried along the mountain sides, and in one instance, from the mountain from some sure source of a never ending supply of water. The district is within three days by sea and land from England, with excellent climatic advantages, chesnut and oak timber is cheap and plentiful, aud there are abundant supplies of water for all purposes.
** The debris of some of the streams and rivers has for ages occupied a portion of the inhabitants, diLring summer (the gold gathered each year by the washers of the Sil and other streams of the district was estimated by Dr. Jgnacio Gomez Salazar in a pamphlet published by him in 1855 at 35 to 40,000 Duros), when these waters leave the hanks dry, they set to work, here and there, on the gravels and clays, washing out with their ungainly wooden pans (* Masoiros '), a penny- weight or more per pan per day, which they sell at the best price they can get to the rich men of their villages.
''When Guillermo Schultz published in 1858 his ' Bescrlpdon Oeologica de Asturias,' he marked on his map that accompanied it, several special places, where washings were carried on at the time. He might have added the whole of the river Orua and Lor, up to where it joins the Navia, a portion of this, and the River Castelo, as the yearly washings were carried on in these two prior to his examination."
" The Orua, thus named, from its source in el Palo Mountain, until it changes farther down to the Lor, runs at the foot of the dihris banks, of seven ancient workings, situated at the foot of the Sierra Valledor. These form a curve over a distance of about ^ miles, are within the quartzite zone, in the vicinity of masses of <Iiorite, cropping out here and there on the margin of the river, and within a short distance of the Syenite mass, upon which the village of Lago is bmlt. The extensive watersheds of this river, and its abrupt
»*• Mining JoumnV February 8th, 1896, p. 171.
62 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Acculemy.
mountain sides increase its body in water to a mighty torrent. Water- worn gold in scales, grains, and dust, is found along its banks ; throughout its course into the Kavia, a distance of 15 miles, and afterwards along this river s banks for a further distance of 5 miles." The river Castelo, draining another watershed, but having its source on the opposite side of the western divisory of the Orua, is also auri- ferous. This river passes below the debris from the ancient workings known to-day by the name " La cueva de Juan Raia^^ mentioned in the Mining Journal of February 24th, 1894. The river Bao drains the Pumovo Mountain. Here, too, there are a number of ancient workings, and formerly washings were carried on yearly in this river. Both these rivers are tributaries of the Porcia. The excavations and dihri% of all these show the enormous mass of stuff handled, and it is to be presumed that the results obtained were in proportion. In the upper waters of the river Ibias, summer pannings have always been carried on. Here there are no ancient workings. The gold has been transported from the weathering of the Sierra de Tablado, comprising a continuation of the Yalldor quartzites, and the gold of the washings that are carried on, on the upper reaches of the river Navia, has been brought from the weathered Sierra de Bastelo, which has an altitude of 1680 m. above sea level. Neither in the one, nor in the other of these, are there any landmarks, in the shape of ancient workings to guide one. The absence of workings is explained, if we bear in mind the climatic differences of summer and winter. Heat in summer, and a long winter of snowfalls, a district scarcely populated, the long distance from the sea coast, and at the time of the ancieht occupation, an almost impenetrable region, comprised of mountain fastnesses and deep ravines infested by wolves and bears.
It is stated in the Mining Journal ' : — " These (quartzites) of the western portion continue into the province of Leon, and present themselves as a guide to the goldsceker. Following then this quartz- ite belt over the divisory Cantabrian range, through the pass called the * Puerto de Trayeto,* at an altitude of 1450m. above sea level, we find it continuing in a south-west direction on the southern flank of the range. This district is drained by the rivers Sil, Burba, Anclares, and Qua, all of whose beds and banks are auriferous. Thus it continues to Las Medulas and Puente de Domingo Flores. Here it changes to a south-east direction, and continues for many leagues until it is cut off by the mountain range that divides the province of
Willy 28, 1896, p. 946.
O'Heillt — Milesian Colonization rehiice to Gold-mining, 63
Leon ^m that of Zamora. This second portion is drained by the liTcrs Duema and Eria, both of which are highly auriferouB. Throughout the whole of these various districts, there are vast remains of an enormous activity in ancient times ; these consist of subterranean labours, immense deposits of debris^ and the tracings of * water leats,' carried over long distances, with here and there immense reservoirs, where water was collected to * boom ' the beds of alluvion in their vicinity. Great beds of this have been partially worked by the ancients who, from the remains, such as coins, bricks, &c., met with, were undoubtedly the Eomans. They left their mark about the rivers Anclares and Burbia, where there are quarries in the quartzite, and some workings in the quartz reefs, all showing more or less gold. Although the Eomans, as stated, had already worked a goodly patch of this, an immense area remains to be treated. For many generations gold has been panned out by the country people during the dry season, from the banks of the Sil and its tiibutaries, the Burbia, Anclares, and Qua."
The Mining Journal also gives*: — **A description of portions of the auriferous deposits in the valleys of the Sil, Cabrera, and Duema, prov. of Orense, and Leon, Spain: by Captain C. C. Longbridge,
1I.I.H.E., &c."
1. " General description of the Ground."
"The deposits of the Eio Sil are first noticeable at Puebla de BroUen, a village between Monforte and San Clodio, and appears to continue with some interruptions to Quereno, on the portion of the Orense province. The bulk of the alluvial deposit therefore lies some 50 to 200 feet above the bed of the Sil, and is easily traceable by eye, owing to the bright red ferruginous tint of the gravely and the darker tints of the conglomerate (see remarks already given as to the origin of the name Minho or Mine). Throughout the distance of, approxi- mately, 76 miles the river Sil flows roughly east and west, and is fed by some small tributaries or mountains streams, such as the Casallo- MiUaroso, Entomas, and Beciqueno, running downwards from the northern watershed. At Quereno the Sil is joined by the Bio Cabrera ; but the chief alluvial deposit lies some miles on the left or north of the river, around the pueblo or village of Medullas, which can be reached by mule in two hours from San Domingo Flores, The dq)06it of Medullas is remarkable not only for its magnitude, but also
1 January 29, 1898, p. 139.
€4 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy,
for the scale on which it has been exploited by the Bomans. The -extent of these workings is evinced by numerous mounds of dihrU^ and by the lofty escarpment of several hundred feet ; that, allowing for Subsequent sub-aerial erosion, mark the quantity of matter removed. Although barometric observations showed the summit of these depositB to be some 1090 feet above the bed of the Cabrera, at San-Domingo Flores ; the bed of this ascends so rapidly that the ancient miners were able to obtain water by a series of canals, stated to tap the river at distances from 16 to 25 miles. Much of these canals, it is said^ «till exist and could be repaired with little expense. In the upper levels of the alluvial, there are at places timnels or galleries which would seem to have been used partly as water conducts. At Medullas, as elsewhere, the alluvial consists of earth and gravel brightly coloured hy oxide of iron. At Quintanilla, some 9 miles from Astorga, there are numerous vestiges of Eoman alluvial, and in the neighbourhood there is said to be an auriferous reef which was worked by the ancients."
These details, given by a mining engineer, show at once the importance and antiquity of the auriferous district he describes, and thus allow of its historical and archseological interest being appre- ciated. Although he only speaks of the Eoman remains found in the waste heaps, it is not consequently to be inferred that the deposits and the ground which yielded them were not worked before the airival of the Romans. On the contrary, the fact of the Romans having undertaken such vast works on them, leads to the presumption that they must have been extensive and highly productive before their time, just as in the case of the Rio Tinto mines in Andalusia, where, along with vast masses of scorisB undoubtedly Roman, there are found waste heaps equally vast, which show by their different percentage in. copper and other remains of tools, etc., the treatment by a people anterior to the Romans, and considered to have been, at least, PhoB- nician, or some such people. This district has, by some, been identi- fied with the Tarsish of the time of Solomon.
By what race or races the gold was mainly worked in Asturias bt»fore the arrival of the Romans is not, at once, evident; most probably it was by a race of mountaineers, accustomed to the pursuit of the metal, having the tradition of the methods proper to this class of work, and content to carry it on as a livelihood for very small earnings, as at present is the case, both in this district and in many- hold- washing districts of the world. As bearing to some extent upon this point, the article on '* Mining in Asturias " (^* Gold Mines of the
0'Rbili.t-— ifffestan Colonisation relative to Oold-mining. 65
Ancients ") which appeared in the Mining Jonmal, 24th February, 1894, p. 199, is worUi being cited from. The writer says: ''The Cambiiaii zone, lying between the B. Navia and the E. Ganero, is notable for the immense belt of quartzite that passes from the sea, on the north, through the whole proyinoe, interning in the province of Leon on the south. Between Salime and Pola de Alende, and about six leagues to the south of the town of I^avia, near the Tillage of Lago (altitude about 800 m* above sea-level), there is a mass of feldspathic diorite, about 200 m« wide. This has not affected the adjacent stratified beds, which are comprised of chloritic schists, and to the S.S.E. and E. of this, there is a run of common diorite, in the vicmity of which (near the banks of the B. Yalledor), there are several ancient workings for gold. Here between the two groups (that of the village of Colon and that of Pola de Alende) the schist is altered, first to gneiss, then to micaschist; afterwards talcose and twisted; sometimes fibrous; generally of a white colour, and very lustrous; often of a pearly white. In these, near the village of f igaeias, there are some ancient workings, and in the pearly white achist, there are thin veins of true asbestos, having a good fibre, to he worked at some future day. At Iboyo, under the saccharoidal limestone, there are some ancient workings in hard porphyritic diorite. The eastern margin of the great quartzite zone marks the greatest development of the ancient workings. These form a string from Tegalagar, two leagues 8.-W. of Cangas de Tineo, for a distance of eight leagues, to near Trevias, S.-E. of Luarca, the limestone band aerring as a guide. All these had their canals to bring the water, often long distances, above the level of the workings; these canals were made along the irregular sides of the mountains, and show to- day that the engineering skill of these ancient miners was well up to the mark. Some of these workings have two or more canals from different watersheds, so that when, on one side, the supply was insufficient, they soon went in a contrary direction for a further aapply. There are several cases where they tunnelled through an intervening ridge to get the water through, after bringing it from a long distance ; such is the case at Montefurado, where the water was required for the working of the mine, which to-day is known a& the Cueva de JuanJRata, celebrated in the folk-lore of the country." Montefurado is thus described in Viv. de S. Martin's Diet, de Qeogr. Univ.: **A village (bourg.) of the province of Lugo, at 64 kms. S.S.E. of Lugo, district of Quiroga, at 367 m. altitude above the level of the B. Sil. The river here passes subterraneously by a cannl of
X.I.A.. PBOC., SSK. m., VOL. VI. F
66 Proceedings of the Boyal Irish Academy.
Roman conBtruction cut in the rock. The mines of the environfl, for the working of which this colossal work was executed, are now abandoned. On the fall side the Sil flows in a defile of 400 m. depth." ** A tradition has been carried down that this cave holds an enormoua treasure, and to obtain it a passage has to be made through a gallery closed by an enormous door. It is guarded by the Janas (the antique gnomes of the miners of the Hartz mountains) ; that any that find ^eir way in will never come out again, but will be compelled to join in a Maccabean^ dance, terminating in madness and death." Notwithstanding this, many years ago, some of the country people, overcome by their cupidity, joined together to lay bare the treasure, in spite of the attempts of their spiritual advisers to dissuade them. They commenced work ; and for a few days all went on " as merry as a marriage bell " ; but their ignorance of the rudiments of mining^ brought the roof about their heads, and they were buried under the ruins they had brought upon themselves. They were looked upon as apostates, condemned, and left where they had fallen. No further attempt has been made to reach the treasure. Nothing can be seen to-day to show what or how they worked, beyond the immense attlo banks and the gold found in the stream draining this.
As regards the ** Janas'* which the tradition says guard the door of the treasure, it is worth while citing the remarks made in Smith's "Greek and Roman Mythology" as regards "Jii«t«." ("A god peculiar to the Italians; he was, however, regarded as one of the oldest, holiest, and most exalted of the gods. In course of time he became the god of all going out and coming in, to whom all places of entrance and passage, all doors and gates, were holy. In Rome all doors and covered passages were suggestive of his name. Over the latter the arches which spanned the streets were called idni. From }i\m sprang all wells, rivers, and streams. He was described as the discoverer of the art of shipbuilding. **/«««*' and ^Jana^ are only other forms of Dianus and Diana. The fact of * Jana' being identical in import with * Luna^ and * Diana* is attested beyond doubt by Varro. Whether the Etrurian divinity, with two or four faces, was originally the same as the Roman Janus, is uncertain.")
"A number of these ancient workings are on the banks of the river Ouro, which before it falls into the Navia, has its name changed to Lor, the former being the local name for Gold, and both originating from the same word, Oro « gold. The country people pan this river, getting fair results in their crude operations. Their pans are roughly
^ Query ** danse Macabre."
O'BsiLLT — Milesian Colonisation relative to OoldminiHg. 67
cut out of blocks of wood, and are called in the locality ' Mtuoiros,* The gold they find in these streams is coarse and in quality fine, and ia all probability proceeds for the most part from the immense attle Innks of the ancients, carried into the streams by the winter torrents washing them gradually away. The attle from the Cuwa de Juan Rata is washed into the river Castello, another tributary of the Navia. As a role there are no bodies of alluvion, us the rivers run in deep uuTow beds between precipitous sides, but where the Navia has ▼ashed out its bed, in softer bodies of rock, and where it bends at sharp angles across these beds, when the water is low in summer, washing has been carried on from time immemorial by the peasants, and successful results have been obtained. One of these bends has been carefully prospected by the writer, and it proved that a systematic dean-out of the bed-rock and of the interstices between the layers of schist pitched against the river floor, would yield enormous results. The thmderst^trms cause the river to rise very suddenly from 3 to 6 feet, so that a wall of 6 feet there would rarely be flooded in summer. Portiona d the banks prospected above the river-level, the washings of the soil accuomlated about the roots of the moss and heather growing on the locky sides, together with sample of the clay, yielded slightly over two (2) oz. of coarse gold, some grains being of the size of wheat grains."
With regard to the tradition related in connexion with the ''Cueva de Juan Bata," and the enormous door therein guarded by the •Vfljkw," it is worth while giving the following extract from Bailly's "Lettres sur TAtlantide," pp. 147-8 : — ** Gian ou Gian ben Gian 6tait le monarque du Peris ou F6es. 11 fut fameux par des exploits mili- tairea et par des superbes ouvrages. H regna pendent 2000 ans sur les Peris. GKan ben Gian fut attaque et vaincu dans un combat g6n6ral et la nation despersee, Les traditions renf erment evidemment la notion d'im peuple detruit et perdu. Les Orientaux Tout exprim6 dans une incieime epitaphe, oii I'on dit * Qu'est devenu le peuple de Gian ben Qian'? regarde ce que le temps en a fait" (Herbelot, p. 396).
The tradition may have reference to "Janus" and "Jana," the fi<nxum or Italian deities who presided over doors, &c., and the workii ^ened to may, as many others, have been carried on under the S^naans, but they may represent a still older people. In this respect it is of interest to cite the following remarks from Hans Gadow's book, "In Northern Spain" (1897). Speaking of the remarkable race of earners known as the '^Maragatos" of Northern Spain, he says, p. 180: — "The Maragateria coincides practically with the range of Wla, which running from north to south, are generally called the
12
68 Proceedings of the Royal L-ish Aaufemy,
'Montes de Leon.' They aie visible across the plain, above which they rise on the average some 800 feet. Plenty of abandoned mines, ascribed to the Romans, bear witness that in olden times these hiUs have been worked extensively for iron and silver ; zinc and lead orea are also found. Justinus speaks of a Mont Sae$r within the confines of Galaecia, which mountain was not allowed to be opened with toolB, but if one of the frequent lightnings should break the ground, then the people collected the lumps of gold which might thus oome to daylight, and they considered them as God's gift. Bisco, in ' Espana Sagrada/ and others since, recognize this ' Mont Saar^ as the present Monte Irago to the south of Euen Cebadon. It is not very obvious why. On fhe contrary, there are reasons against it. There is no gold to begin with, at least not in nuggets, and then, what does 't» eonJlnibuM 0Mae%4B^ mean? It is true GalsBcia comprised originally a much larger part of Spain (than at present). It is probable that part of the present province of Spain belonged to it. ^ In eonfinihut^* on the frontier of Galicia, well and good, and that may possibly do for the Uontes de Leon ; but if ' in eonfinihut' means ' within^' as it ought to, then the 'Mons Sacer' has to be looked for somewhere else; where there is gold, where thunderstorms do break ofl and wash dovm portions of a mountain, where there is a mountain or hill of striking appearance, and last, not least, one which is situated at a place which can be described but vaguely. Such a hill which fulfils all these requirements of the Mons Sacer, exists between Yillafranca and Burbia ; of this more anon. But the Monte Irago lies a few miles to the west of Astorga, and so it did when the town was still called Lucis Asturum."
It may be remarked that '' Mona Sae&r^* means a mountain devoted or consecrated to some divinity. Hence to find the ^^ Mont Sacer** in question, a name of a hill or mountain situated ''in confinibus Galasciae " should be looked for capable of bearing, or bearing this title. The tradition recounted relatively to the **Cueva dt Juan JRata,*' or mine so called, near Montefurado, already mentioned, furnishes perhaps a solution of this problem, and in the following way : — ** Montefurado, of which a description has already been given from the * Dicf* de Geo. Univ.' de Yivien. de S' Martin, may fairly pretend to be a hill or mountain of striking appearance.*' Moreover, the "Montefurado," or "pierced hill " is situated in the valley of the Sil, the principal river of Galicia, and not far from its confines with the province of Leon ; but the chief interest of the question lies in the name " Juan Mata,*' and the door guarded by " Janat*' May not the name "Juan Rata " be merely the
O'Bbilly — Milesian Colanisuxtion relative to Qold^mining. 69
local cormptioii of '' Jano-Bata"?; that is, the eueva or Tunnel **eon» tecrated to Janus,*' or '' Jana," who essentially presided over doors, and passages, and Taulted openings? This then would be a yeritable "Mms Saeer** ; but this character is completed, by the fact already stated in the Mining Engineer's report, that the heavy rains, accom- panying the thunderstonns so frequent and so yiolent in these districts, sweep down into the river Sil below, gold dust and scales, which up to this day the peasants collect in the manner already described. I^or would this be the only ** Mens Sacer " in the district, since among the sumnits or "Picos de Europa," a remarkable group of mountains lying between the Asturias and the province of Santander, there is a *'P«M Jtfifo," said in the country to be so called from the fact of ita liaring been dedicated to " Janus." Moreover, in it there was in 1860 (at least) an ancient copper mine representing a gallery which up to that time had not been completely explored. Would not this dedi- cation of mines and mining galleries to " Janus "or '^ Jana " point to the presence in these countries of a race anterior to the Eomans, such as the Etruscans, of whom this god was among the principal divinities, and which was renowned for its engineering works of great magnitude, and particularly for the execution of tunnels such as the ** Cloaca Maxima."
If this presumption be correct, the names of the rivers, places, and towns of the district should offer some indications in that respect. Att^tion has already been called to the names of the river Minho, or Mino, and the descriptions given of the alluvial deposits along the liver sides show that the root ^^min" in the name, refers to the red oxide of iron which so strongly and so markedly colours them, and seryes as a guide to the exploring miner in search of these deposits in the district. In the ** Dictionary of the Gaelic Language," vol. ii., p. 677, meinn, miotaUte, is given as the Celtic equivalent for " ore." Assuming, therefore, the Celtic origin of the name Mine, or Minho, would be the river carrying or showing the ore, and would, even to the present, be a very characteristic name. If this be true of the Mino, its continuation inland, the *^ Sil," should present a somewhat similar meaning. As a matter of fact, the word ''Sil" has a Celtic meaning, the same dictionary giving for it the signification, " a drop " (gutta), and the verb " Sil," " SiHdh," has the meaning **rain," as well as to '' drop," ^' distil " ; and thus the Sil might be understood as the river which " dropped," or "rained," or "sowed" the gold dust along its banks. In Spanish there is actually the word " sil," signi- fjing *' the r«i aehrs used hy painters.*^ The river names of the gold
70 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Acadewy.
district already mentioned, the Orua^ the Lor, aa well aa the name " Sierra Valledor," may be construed as having the root " or," gold, or " orach/' abounding in gold. As regards the other riyers of the district — ^the Andares, the Bal, the Burbia, the Duema, the Eria, the Brana, the Ibias, the Kayia, the Forcia, and the Qua, and UUa — it would be very yenturesome to attempt etymologies or deriyations in the absence of any other data than the mere names as given on the maps of the present date. It may, however, be remarked, that the names Eria and XJlla, recall the Celtic names of Ireland and of Ulster ; but nothing precise or well founded could be based on what may be treated as mere chance resemblances. There is, however, one local name which may have great significance, and to which attention may therefore be called ; it is that of the mountain mass lying between Luarca, on the coast, and Gangas de Tineo, in the south, and which forms the eastern boundary of the valley of the river Kavia ; it is indicated on the map as the Sierra de Ranadoiro, It would bound the gold district of the Asturias to the north-west, and is, therefore, to a certain extent, connected with it ; may it not, therefore, be of Celtic origin, and represent the words ** Rath-na-oir,' **tbe rath or fort, or hill of the gold " ? Luarca, which may be said to be the port of the district, is thus described in the "Diet, de Geo. Univ.," de Vivien de S. Martin: — "Luarca, town of the province of Oviedo, at 60km. therefrom, on the borders of the Atlantic, and at the mouth of the river Negro, which flows from the Sierra de Banadoiro. The hai'bour has a bottom of sand, is badly protected, not spacious, and is shallow. It can only receive but small vessels (*de petites, et cl la rigeur, de moyennes embarcations'). The inhabitants of Luarca fonnerly caught whales on their coasts."
It may be remembered that a whaling population must be good sailors, and able to make trips farther to sea than ordinary fishermen. Hence Luarca may have been a port of much more importance anciently than it is at present, and may even suggest a possible key to the relations of Spain with Ireland. If any importance is to be attached to the Celtic derivation of the local names in this district (and H. Gadow has suggested a certain number in his ^^ Northern Spain ^') they would tend to prove that Celts were the most ancient inhabitants of the mountainous parts of Asturias and Galicia, and would justify the carrying of the research into the names of the tools, utensUs, &c., which have come down fi*om the Celtic populations.
Now the mining captain, from whose report on the auriferous alluvial of the Sil, extracts have already been given, speaks of the
O'Bbillt — Milesian Cohnizaiian relative to Oold-mining. 71
natiyes as washing the dihrit of the alluvioiu in their rude '^ maaoirosJ' or wooden pans. This word can he derived from the Celtic '^ mias " » a dish, a platter (O'Eeilly), and " or '' or " otr," " gold " or " golden" ; BO that the ^* nuuoiro" of the Asturian gold- washer is the **gold panning dish " of his Celtic predecessor. Had the mining captain in question made more careful inquiries as to the terms employed hj the washers for their tools and operations, he would probably have been able to collect some, if not many, other such antique terms. In an excellent work on the French Pyrenees, by Eugene Trutat, he describes the gold washings at Famiers in the Comt6 de Foix, and gives the following names of the tools employed by the washers : —
The '' andusa" — '* A shovel having the edges turned up at the sides, by about 4 lines, 9^ inches long by 7^ inches wide, used for the removal of large pebbles which usually cover the finest gravel." This may be explained by the Celtic an tui»^ the (piece) laminated, or made thin."
** Balme." — " Finer part of the deposit intermingled with masses of pebbles. "Bal = ^a//," in Irish, means a "speck," a "spot," Kf = a diminishing compound article ; so that " haltni " would signify a Tery fine speck (such as is usually presented by the gold as the result of the washing). In the Cornish mines, where tin sands were usually washed and separated by girls ; these were termed " halgirlsJ^
The ^^greffane** or ^^ gressdUy — "A sort of wooden plate, 1 foot 6 inches to 1 foot 9 inches in diameter, hollowed out to 3 inches in the centre for washing."
*' Slane or grifEaun," is the name given in Mayo to a form of spade or shovel without wings. (There is still in use on the washing floors of the Cornish mines a shovel of about the same dimensions, as men- tioned for the " grefCane," and used in the same way, for separating or "pamiing " fine ore). The other word, ^*gressale" may be explained by the Irish word ^^ gris^' = tremor, which very exactiy explains or describes its mode of action.
The " seudelle " ■= " a small wooden bowl for receiving the black sand and (accompanying) gold." The Celtic word ^^ scotuiV = " chosen," '' elect,'* explains suffidentiy this term.
It may be mentioned that in Spain there is still in use a tool called a"/«ytf," a long two-pronged fork, used for tilling ground, which seems to correspond with the Irish " /ay«," also still in usage.
In the work dted (E. Trutat, "Les Fyren6es"), the author describes the Catalan forges still being worked in the mountains, par- ticularly at Sanci6 (Arri^ge), and mentions in detail the ores and fuel
72 Proeeedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
used, and the names applied to the different parts of the fainace. Fe says (p. 171) : — '' Dans le cas de la ' mine' (iron ore) c'est ^pig^ne, les minenrs la designent sous le nom de mine a ^gra de gahach * (graine de bl6 noir) ; this is seemingly the Celtic ' grdn ' = ' grain, com, haul, shot,' and gabdi«a smith." He adds : — ** Les mines de fer de Eanci6 ont 6t6 exploit^es dans la plus haute antiquity, et elles ont toujouis 6t6, nne sorte de propri6t6 commime, que les habitants du pays ont senls le droit d'ezploiter."
Page 187. — He describes one of the qualities of iron obtained from these forges, and gives, as the name, by which it is known in the country, ^^Cidat,' which he explains as a ** Variety de fer (Catalan) qui casse & noir and a yiolette. C68t ime quality sup6rieure k acier naturel. EUe est reGherch6e dans le commerce pour Tagriculture." '^ May not this haye to do with the Celtic Ceaehta = ' plough,' a plough- share."
The fame of the Spanish steels was great in antiquity, and it is of interest to point out one of the sources whence in all probability it proceeded, and its connexion with Celtic races.
At page 335, when speaking of the ''B6amais," he sayB of them: — ''La race est evidemment une de ces nombreuses families gauloises qui occupaient Textr^me midi de la province, connue sous le nom d' ' Acquitaine,' avant I'occupation romaine. Les Eenarenses (Beamais), and les Osquidates (habitants d'Aspe, d*Ossau, etBaretous) formerent les premiers elements de notre race."
The gold district of northern Spsdn extends southwards into th* province of Leon, as already shown, and is watered by the Sil and ite tributaries, all for the most part carrying gold in workable quantities, at least for peasant workings, during the summer months. It would seem at first sight that the natural outlet for the trade in gold dust from this district should be by the valley of the Mino, and such may have been the route taken by some of it, but between the city of Leon and La Conma there exists, and has existed, from remote antiquity, a trade route by which most of the trajfic of merchandise between these two points has been customarily carried on. Gadow, in the work already cited (**In Northern Spain"), p. 171, when describing the province or kingdom of Leon, says: — "The old kingdom of Leon is connected with Galicia by one of the most famous roads in the whole of Spain. Practically the only road mapped out by nature, it was fol- lowed by all the successive masters, or would-be masters of the north- west of the Peninsula." Then, in describing the "Maragatos," in whose hands this trade haa long been, and the district they inhabit^
O^BxiLLT — Milesian Cohniaation relative to OoU-mining. 7&
the " Mara^aieria^* lying between Fontefeirada and Astorga, and ceineiding with the range of the Montes de Leon, he says of them : — ''Absolutely tmstworthy, honest and diligent, they haye in their hands the whole of the trade from Conma to Leon." They would be at present, and probably were in the past, the conyeyors of the pro* ducts of the gold washings of the Sil yalleys to Corufia, since they are recognised as a yery distinct and well marked race, haying peculiar babits and holding themselyes somewhat apart, and, in consequence, baling attracted the attention of the trayellers who haye undertaken to describe these parts of Spain. Ford, in his delightful book, " Gatherings from Spain," giyes an elaborate account of these people. (Gadow, work cited, p. 175). It has been sought to connect them with the Berbers as to their origin, but there is a possibility that they may represent the remains of that Milesian colony which came from tile Mediterranean and settled in Gkdicia under ^* Bartha,** and which peopled ancient Galicia, that is, a district comprehending not only the present proyince, but also a considerable part of Asturias and the proyince of Leon, '4ts boundaries haying been on the south the riyer Douro, on the north-east the riyer Nayia, and on the east the mountains of the Asturias, or Asturians, so that it corresponded almost exactly to the modem Galicia, with the addition on the south of the Portaguese proyinces of Entre Deuro e Minho and Tras os Montes, and on the east of some small portions of Asturias and Leon. Some- times a wider extent was assigned to the country, so as to include the Astuies."»
That a Celtic people worked the mines abounding in the Pyrenees, and more particularly the gold mines or washings, may be inferred from the local names of riyers and tools already referred to, and that Coruna was a point of outlet for those metals and ores during the period that it was frequented by the Phoenicians may also be admitted, while at the same time it seryed as a basis for maritime explorations and ex- peditions by this remarkable people putting them in relation with all the accessible ports of north Spain and those of the west coast of France or Gaul. A trace of this intercourse is probably preseryed in the name of yessels which are in use along the northern coast of Spain, and which, by reason of their size and qualities, are adapted for the navigation of its ports and harbours. They are called **lanehai" (Bug. launch, Fr. lanches), and are about the size and style of the
> Dion Caas. xzzyii. 68 ; Plin. iii. 8, s. 4 ; xix. 1, b. 2). (Smith's " Dictionary <rf An. Q«)gnphy.")
74 Proceedings qf the Boyal Irish Academy.
Penzance herring boats, that is, from 25 to 30 tons capacity, oanying two log sails, and decked forward and aft. The word may be derived from the Celtic, hng and «Mfi= *' old ships," and if this be correct it offers another connecting link in the relations between north Spain and Great Britain. By the intercourse of this class of vessel with the coast of Oanl the Fhcenicians soon became aware of the existence of, and the routes leading to, the British Isles, and the products to be obtained therefrom.
If, therefore, subsequently to their establishment at Coruna, a period of quite abnormal drought set in, affecting disastrously the greater part of the peninsula, and lasting during quite an unheard of auccession of years, and forced large numbers of the inhabitants to emigrate, it can easily be conceived that Goruiia became a port of em- barkation, since there would not only be found vessels able to carry the emigrants to other lands, but a knowledge of distant countries where more favourable conditions of life could be found, and where the mining and metallurgical experience acquired in Spain could be turned to account and trading stations established.
According to the article on the British Isles in Smith's '* Dictionary of Ancient Geography," and in treating of the tin trade of the Phoenicians with Cornwall, it is stated : — ** In round numbers we may lay the beginning of the Phoenician intercourse with Cornwall at B.C. 1000." It is further stated : — ** It must have been either an instinct or an accident that brought the first vessel from the Mediterranean to the coast of Cornwall."
Further, the writer says : — ** The earliest gloss that has a bearing upon the geography of Britain is the word * CassitertdeSj^ for it must be observed that while the word * Brittania ' is non-existent in Herodotus, the Orphic extract (given in the article) knows only the Irish (lemian) isles. Now this word (Cassiterides), though bearing on Britain, is no British word. It is the oriental term Kastira, Were the word British in origin we should be enabled to enhance the antiquity of the Cornish tin trade, since the word ' KtusiUros ' occurs both in Homer and in Hesiod, who shall say, however much the possibilities may be in favour of the Homeric and Hesiodic tin being Cornish, it was not Indian, i.e. Malayan. The tin trades may have been concurrent, the Eastern one the oldest, at least that is what is auggested by the name."
The writer seems here to ignore the other sources of tin, which may have been and probably were known to the Phoenicians, those of Spain (environs of Salamanca) and the north-west of Gaul. These
O'Bbillt— iftfe«uin Colonination relative to Oold-mining. 75
would hare become known to the FhoenicianB as soon as they began to trade along the west coast of Spain from Cadiz to Comna, later on as regards Oaul, when they became acquainted with the northern coast of bpain and the western coast of Gaul. If, therefore, their arrival or first trading with Cornwall be placed '^ roughly" about 1000 B.C., it is reasonable to suppose their previous acquaintance with the west coast of Spain, and the north coast of same at a still earlier date, and to place this acquaintance even earlier than the date usually given for the foundation of Cadi2, viz. 1 100 B.C., since it is hardly to be assumed that that city was founded immediately on their passing the pillars of Hercules rather many years afterwards, when the extent of their trade and their knowledge of the country had developed to the point of giving rise to its foundation. These are the considerations which, along with other reasons already dwelt upon led the writer of the present paper to place the arrival of the Milesian colony iu Ireland somewhat about the twelfth century b.c.
Taking Professor O'Curry's ^'Lectures on the Manners and Customs of the Ancient Irish " as a guide, we have the following as the first mention of the working of gold in Ireland, vol. ii., p. 6 : — " The next entry to be found in our ancient authorities, throwing any light upon the progress of our early civilization, is found in the records of the Kign of Tigheammas MTollaigh, one of the earliest of the Milesian iings of Ireland. Tigheammas, who was of the race of Eremon, hecame king in the year of the world 3580, according to the ' Annals of the Four Masters,' or 3089, according to the chronology followed hy M^Geoghegan, that is about 1620 years B.C. according to the former, or 915 B.C. according to the latter authority. And this king is every- where recorded as having been the first to discover gold and to work gold mines in this country. The precise situation of these original gold mines is not laid down for us ; but it is recorded that it was in the forests standing on the east side of the river Liff ey ; that the ore was smelted by a worker in metals of the name of Juchaden, who was a native of that district. We may therefore fairly infer that the gold itself was discovered in Leinster, and this opinion is strengthened by our finding the people of Laighin or Leinster, called afterwards * Lai^hnigh-an-oir,* or the Lagenians of the Gold, because as it is stated, it was in their country that gold was first discovered in Krinn."
To this same monarch is attributed the introduction of ornamental drinking-cups, and of colours in dress, as well as ornaments of broodies of gold and silver.
76 Proceedings of the Royal IrUh Academy.
Page 7. — "In the year of the world 3872 (t.*. 132 b.c, acooidingto ^['Geoghegan's Chronology) died the monarch Muinemon, of the raoe of Eber. It was this Muinemon who first caused chains of gold to be worn on the necks of kings and chiefs in Erinn. About the year 3870 died Mainmario, King of Munster, of the line of Eber. He was the first that purchased gold and silver in Erinn. In the year 3882 (b.c. 122) died the monarch FaiUdem-daid (t.^.the 'Man of the red-ringed hands/ of the line of Eber. He was the first that caused rings of gold to be worn on the fingers of the nobles of Erinn."
"In the year of the world 4463 (a.d. 459) died the monarch Lughaid Laigne, of the line of Eber, after a reign of seyen years. He was the first that invented bronze and bronze spears in Erin."
0' Curry gives the following details conceniing the localities in which gold was worked in Ireland, which may not be wanting in interest for the purposes of this paper, vol. in., p. 204: — "He men- tions ' Credne^^ the celebrated ^ cerd^ or goldsmith of the Tuatha de Danann. His name was derived from ' credh/ the ore of the precious metals in which he worked."
Page 205.—" The bog of CuUen is situated in the parish of Cullen, barony of Clanwilliam, and county Tipperary, and on the immediate 1 order of the county of Limerick. From time immemorial gold has been found in all conditions of preparation from the primitive ore to the most beautiful of fashioned ornaments, nay even to the very crucibles. Small bronze saucepans, with the gold arrested in its progress of smelting or boiling, have been found in this bog and its neighbour- hood."
Page 207. — " There was anciently in this district a small chief- tancy called * Cerdraighe^ that is, * the territory of the yolditnithsJ The Cerdraighe of Tulach-Gossa were named * Cerdraighe,' because every man of them was a eerd or * goldsmith ' for seven generations."
Page 208.—" And so we find that the trade and art of gold manu- facture, if not of gold molting and mining, was carried on in this district, probably on this very spot, during the long period of 221 years from 234 a.d. to 474."
It is worth mentioning here that the mineral district of silver mines in the county Tipperary is only about twelve or fifteen miles to the north of Cullen, and that the ancient mineral land of " Mianus," now Meanus, in the county Limerick, is only about the same distance to the west of that town.
Page 210.— The first ** Cerd " is Creidne, who takes his name from " Credh" which signifies the ore of copper, gold, silver, &o. The
O'RBiiA/g ^Milesian Colonisation relative to Qold^mining. 77
aitiBt IB xnentioiLed in the oldest historical tract that we now poBsesR ; the battle of the Southern Magh Tureadh, fought between the PirbolgB and the Tuatha de Danann. His scales, weights, and measares are mentioned in our ancient laws, and his decisions about metals and metallui^ have been acted upon in Brehon law, almost down to our own time.
" Credne wm drowned — The cuxming * Cerd ' — ^upon the wide Sea of dangerous waters Whilst bringing over golden ore Into Erin out of Spain.*'
The last line is singularly interesting, as showing the connexion between Ireland and Spain as regards the art of metallurgy in particttlaTy and bears directly on the subject matter of this paper. The question is suggested by it : From what point of Spain was the ore being brought? "The wide sea of dangerous waters "may be simply a poetical expression, and point to no sea in particular, but it is well qualified to characterize the Bay of Biscay, and so far would point to the north coast of Spain as the place from which the '^ golden ore " was being brought. It has been already agreed that gold was worked in the Pyrenees by Celtic or Ibero-Celtic tribes, and extracts are given from Trutat's " Pyrenees '* to that effect. Now there is a portion of the eastern Pyrenees still known by the local name, " La Cerdagne, or in Spanish La Cerdaiia" ; it is thus described in the ** Dictionaire de Geographical University," already cited. " Pays situ6 sur les deux yersants des Pyren6es orientales (en France, Bousillon, en Espagne, Catalogue), dans les yallees superieures du Segre et de la Tet. Les villes principales sent, en France, Saillagouse and Montlouis ; et en Espagne, Puycerda et Livia ou Llivia, Cette derm^re presente cette particularite, qu'elle forme une enclave espagnole, compl^tement entouree par le territoire fran<jais du Department des Pyrenees Orientales. La Cerdagne garde le nom des Ancieus Ceretani, peuplade de sang Iberien, La plupart de ses bourgs et villages, sent snjets a de tr^s longs hivers, et le climat est tres froid d cause de Textr^me altitude du sol. On y parle plus on moins le frangais au N. Tespagnol au S., nuds la langue national est encore le Catalan."
An examination of the map of the Pyrenees shows that this district lies near the sources of the Ariege, and not far from the Comte de Foix, the gold washings of which have been referred as fmnishing Celtic terms for the tools therein used by the washers.
78 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Acadetny.
Now the diminutiTe of '* Ceid " is " Cerdan," and " Cerdafia " or " La Cerdagne " would be territory inliabited by the " CeidB " or ** Ceidans," and it may be that this was one of the principal centres of the tribes which inhabited these elevated peaks and valleys along the whole line of the Pyrenees wherever metals were to be fonnd, and worked from east to west, and the wealth in metalliferous ores of the whole chain has already been insisted upon.
The conclusion which we may come to is, that seemingly the Milesians introduced the art of working gold into Ireland, and that they had acquired their knowledge and experience in Spain, and in the Mediterranean countries which they are said to have visited. TaMng the date assigned for the reign of Tigheammas by M'Geoghegan, and mentioned by O'Curry as 915 b.c, and adding the years whicli represent the reigns of the preceding kings mentioned by Keating, in the " tables of the Kings of Ireland " which is given in his history, and which amount to 129, between Heber and Tigheammas, there results as the date of the arrival of the Milesians in Ireland, 1044 b.c. Going back about two generations from this date, to the arrival of the colony in northern Spain, and their settlement there under Eartha, we have the date of 1200 (approx.) b.c, which fairly corresponds with that which has been assigned to the great famine in Spain.
[ 79 ]
vn.
THE DEXTERA D^ SCULPTURED ON THE HIGH CROSSES OF IRELAND. Bx FRANCIS JOSEPH BIGGER, M.R.I.A., F.R.S.A.L
[Bead Apul 9ts, 1900.]
So far as I can at present ascertain, we have only three examples of the
srmbol known as the Dextera Dei, or Right Hand of God carved upon
the high crosses of Ireland, nor have I observed it in any other sculpture
anterior to the thirteenth century in this country. It occurs on the
Cross of Muiredach at Monasterboice, on the Cross of King Fland at
Clonmacnoise, and on the Cross in KeUs street. The two former are
by far the most remarkable in form and in the position they occupy
upon the Cross itself. In each case they are on the underside of one
of the arms with the wrist towards the shaft as if to symbolize the
Hand of God supporting the Cross ; they are distinct and alone, not
being connected with any other subject, and represent the full Hand,
all the fingers extended. Both are surrounded with ornamental
circles or nimbi, that of Monasterboice being more ornamental than
the other. Both, however, bear one distinct feature, which is this,
they must either represent the palm of the left hand or the back of
the right hand, as the thumb is depicted on the left side.
If the latter, which is more probable, then the idea suggested of the Hand of (rod supporting the Cross is the more apparent, for the aim of the cross leans on the palm of the hand, and the back is exposed to view. We do not consider it was ever intended to repre- sent the left hand.
In the case of the Kells Cross representation, the subject is quite differently treated. To the left is a large bearded figure holding something like a square, below which kneel two figures, the "square" forms a comer in which is the Dextera Dei, with the wrist to the upper comer and the thumb and two first fingers hangmg down ; the other two fingers are closed on the palm as in the act of blessing. It may be added here that the position of the fingers approach more nearly the Greek form of blessing than the Latin form, and there is no nimbus.
80 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Acadetnp.
This Ib unmistakably a right hand with the palm exposed to view, and quite different from the other two. The whole scene forms one of the panels on the side of the Cross, but what subject is represented I am unable to say.
As pure symbolism on our High Crosses is not commonly met with, it makes one dwell the more on the extraordinary character and
Jkgtera Dei oa the Cross of Muiredaoh at Monasterboice.
position of the representations here described. So far as I can find, neither in England, nor yet on the Continent, is the symbol usually depicted as at Monasterboice and Clonmacnoise. The Kells figure is the usual one, and it is often met with, particularly on the Continent. The symbol is not recorded from Scotland at all.
The other Christian symbols found are, the Dove at Clonmao-
Bigger — The " Dextera Dei " on High Crosses of Ireland. 81
noise; the A gnus Dei at Eells and Dnrrow; the Fish at Kells; the Trinity at Durrow, and the symbols of the four EviojgplistB at Duleek* i here may be others.
DexUra Dei on the Cross of King Fland at Clonmacnoise.
It will thus be seen how very few symbols are cut upon our crotseB in comparison with the other European countries, where all tlie blown symbols are recorded times without number, and this brings us to the consideration of the (jucstion of the origin of this device. In
R.I.A. PBOC., SKR. III., VOL. VI. ' O
82
Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
Psalm czTiii., y. 16, we read : <' The Eight Hand of the Lord hath t3ie pre-eminence. • • • The Bight Hand of the Lord bringeth mighty
Dextera Dei on the Cross in the Street of Kells.
things to pass." But here the Psalmist was doubtless only using an old-world figurative expression signifying power and strength, whilst Saint Peter says '' by the Right Hand of God exalted " (Acts ii. 23).
Bigger— TA^ '^Dextera Dei'' on High Crosses of Ireland. b3
The Semitic origin of the symbol, howeyer, caimot be denied. Upon an Assyrian obelisk two hands are shown issuing from a solar disk.'
It appeals amongst the Ghaldaeans.'
According to Lenormant, the celebrated pyramid of Borsippa was called '' the Temple of the Eight Hand," and one of the names of Babylon was ** the city of the Hand of Ann," or, what amounts to the same thing, of " the Celestial Hand."'
The band uplifted towards the sky is an oft-repeated image on the £x Yoto of Carthage, and even at the present time it is figured on nadye houses in Palestine and Morocco to ward off eyil spirits, and in our own day is used when taking an oath by certain religious bodies. Jews and Mahomedans also swear with uplifted hand, as did many of the early pagan races. Of course we are all ^uniliar with the Old Testament scene of the hand writing on the wall at Belshazzar's feast {tide Daniel y. 6).
A similar power was belieyed to remain in the hands of the chief- tains of Australia after death, when they were detached from the body and preseryed by the tribe ; and eyen in Ireland we find elaborately wrought reliquaries made to contain the hands of saints and holy persons.
A hand also decorates the pedestal of the Holy Tree in a bas-relief at Bharhut.*
In these cases the full hand is shown with the fingers extended as at Clonmacnoise and Monasterboice*
The hand almost as often as the eagle surmounted the Eomun standard, and in such case symbolised power and triumph.
In a miniature of the ninth century, in the Bibliotheque I^ationale of Paris, the Diyine Hand is depicted in the centre of a nimbus, with a Cross emanating from the clouds.^ This hand is similar to that of KcUs in that only the back is shown.
This is the manner in which the hand was inyariably shown in Christian times down to the eleyenth century, and no other representa- tion of the first person of the Trinity is oyer found until after that period.
*G. Bawlinson, '* The Fiye Great Monarchs," toI. 2, p. 233.
*Lag»rd, "Mithra/' pi. xxyii., fig. 6.
> Gazette An:heologique, 1877, p. 31. V I «For thete references. Bee ** The Migration of Symbols," by the Count Goblet d'AlTieUa.
^Se« *« Christian Iconography," Sidon and Stokes, vol. i., pp. 55, 202, 204-6, 210.
G 1
84 Proceedings of the Royal Imh Academy.
In '^ Symbols and EmblemB," by Elizabeth Twining, there is an illustrated list of the hand as it appears in various places, mostly in Italy, but one from the l^orman Abbey Church of Homsey, Hampshire, approaches the nearest to the subjects of this paper; it appears above the Crucifixion with all the fingers extended downwards, the wrist surrounded by conventional clouds. J. Homilly Allen, in ^' Christian Symbolism," p. 165, illustrates this also, and gives numerous other instances of the Dextera Dei. A hand in benediction appears above a Saint Andrew Crucifixion in the twelfth century seal of Wells Cathedral.
Nowhere can I find any examples similar in form and position to those of Monastcrboice and Clonmacnoise, so they may may be taken as perfectly unique in Christian art and symbolism. In later years {eirca 1335) we find the O'Neills of TJlBter bearing the right hand as an emblem, the definite origin of which we know not, but we may surmise it to have been to them a sacred symbol of Divine strength and assistance. It may have been brought to Ireland by the Phoenicians. The later myth connected with the bleeding left hand must be thrown aside as of recent growth.'
I wish to express my indebtedness to Miss Margaret Stokes, John Kingcomb, and the Rev. Dr. Healy, of Kells, for assistance in writing this paper.
Since this paper was written and read, " Horns of Honour," by F. J. Elworthy (Murray, 1900) has appeared. It is largely devoted to this subject, and is copiously illustrated, conclusively proving the extremely ancient character of this symbol and its wide distribution amongst the early nations of the world long anterior to Christian times. I had no idea when writing this paper that so many pagan examples of the hand were in eidstence, or that its veneration had been so universal. It is a most instructive example of the adaptation by Christians of a symbol sacred before their time, and not by any means confined to the Jewish nation. The writer of the book does not, however, refer to